章节大纲

  • Dualism
    ::双重主义

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     Now we shall examine dualism. It is the first of the options on the mind body problem.  It is the most popular conception, it appears as the most obvious answer to the problem and it is the source of the problem all at the same time!
    ::现在,我们将研究二元论。这是关于心身问题的首个选项。这是最流行的概念,似乎是问题最明显的答案,同时也是问题的根源!

    Dualism, Cartesian Interactionist - the view that:
    ::二元论、笛卡尔互动主义者认为:

    1. the mental and the material comprise two different classes of substance and;
      ::精神和物质由两种不同的物质和物质组成;
    2. both can have causal effects on the other.
      ::两者都可能对对方产生因果关系。

    Plato
    ::排数

    Plato thought that the soul could and would exist apart from the body and would exist after the death of the body. He offered a "proof" for this position and was the first to do so in writing that we have any evidence of doing so. He offered several different proofs, or arguments, none of which are convincing today. They are held to be specious arguments or terribly flawed and unconvincing. He held that humans were composed of bodies and souls but the soul was more important and immortal. His arguments used premises which we question today. For example, P lato thought that he could conclude that the soul could exist independent of the body because it acted independently from the body when it engaged in pure thought. This is no longer accepted as true since it is equally evident today that without a physical brain thought appears unlikely to occur. Plato thought that the only way to explain how people come to know things is that they are remembering the knowledge implanted in their souls when the souls were in the realm of pure thought and eternal forms before entering into the body after which they forgot as they became confused by physical emotions an feelings and limited experiences through the senses. This is no longer accepted as the best explanation of how people come to have knowledge. None the less, Plato is credited with being the first human to attempt to set out any sort of a proof that humans had souls and that they survived the death of the body and that they were immortal. He offered these arguments in the dialogue he wrote titled the Phaedo .
    ::柏拉图认为,灵魂可以存在,并且会存在于身体之外,并且会存在于身体死亡之后。他为这个姿势提供了一种“证据”,他是第一个以书面方式这样做的人,因为我们有这方面的证据。他提供了若干不同的证据或论点,但今天没有任何令人信服的证据或论点。这些证据或论点都无法令人信服。人们认为,这些证据或论点被认为是似是而非的论据,或者极为有缺陷和不能令人信服。他认为,人类的灵魂是由身体和灵魂组成的,但灵魂是更加重要和永生的。他的论点使用了我们今天质疑的场所。例如,柏拉图认为,他可以断定灵魂独立于身体,因为灵魂可以独立存在,因为它在身体进行纯洁的思考时,它可以独立行事。这不再被接受为真实的证据,因为今天同样明显地表明,没有体格上的大脑似乎不太可能出现。普拉图认为,唯一的解释是,当灵魂处于纯净思想和永恒的形式进入身体之后,他们就会忘记自己被身体混淆了,因为身体会如何被感觉和有限的经历,而这种经历又通过纯净的思维来被排除。 这一点是人类的最好解释。这种解释。这种解释是没有被接受的。这种解释的。这种解释是人类的最好的道理的。这种解释是没有被接受的。首先被证实下来的。这种解释的。这种解释。这种解释。这种解释为人类的。这种解释是没有被写为人类的。

    Rene Descartes
    ::Rene 笛卡尔

    Descartes also believed that the soul existed prior to and separate from the body (see Meditation II of Meditations on First Philosophy ) and so was immortal. In his view all of reality consisted of two very different substances: matter/physical and spirit/non-physical. The physical was what would be extended in time and space and the non-physical would not be so characterized. For D escartes, the soul of a human exists prior to and separate from the body. His proof consisted of argumentation that has been seriously criticized and rejected. He thought that if he could in some form demonstrate that humans can prove that they exist without first proving that they have physical bodies then that would prove that they did not need a physical body in order to exist. He thought that his famous claim that "I think therefore I am" established not just that he existed, but that he existed without a body as a "thinking thing." A "thinking thing" is a thing that thinks and by that would be included: imagining, conceiving, hoping, dreaming, desiring, fearing, conjecturing, reasoning, remembering, and more. For him a "thinking thing" needed no physical parts to do what it does. Modern science has established that there is no evidence of humans that are without a physical body and its brain.  There is no evidence that thought is possible without a brain.  There is much evidence that what has been associated with Descartes' "thinking thing" is now explained solely in terms of the brain and how the brain is physically structured and the functioning of the brain.
    ::笛卡尔认为灵魂存在于身体之前,与身体分离(见《第一哲学的冥想二》),因此是永恒的。在他看来,所有现实都由两种非常不同的物质组成:物质/物理和精神/非物理。物理是时间和空间的延伸,非物理的特征不会如此。对于笛卡尔来说,人类的灵魂存在于身体之前,与身体分离。他的证明包括严重批评和拒绝的争论。他认为,如果他能够以某种形式证明人类的存在,而不首先证明他们有物理身体,那么,就会证明他们不需要物理身体存在。他认为,他的著名说法是,“因此我认为”不仅存在,而且他没有身体“思考的东西”存在。“思考的东西”是一种思考,想象,感知,希望,梦想,渴求,恐惧,恐惧,猜测,思考,思考,思考,思考,思考,思考,然后证明他们的身体,然后证明他们并不需要身体的身体。 他认为,大脑的功能是“结构” 而不是大脑的一部分。他认为,大脑的功能是“结构”是没有大脑的一部分。 大脑的原理是“什么是,大脑的原理是, 大脑的原理是没有。 大脑的一部分是“结构是没有。 大脑的原理,大脑的原理是没有。 大脑的原理是,大脑的一部分是“结构,大脑的一部分是没有。” 大脑的原理是,大脑的原理是没有。

    Cartesian Skepticism
    ::笛卡尔人怀疑论

      Variations of Dualism
    ::二元主义的变异

    1. - minds and bodies exist and interact in some way
      ::- 思想和身体存在,以某种方式互动
    2. - body acts on mind but minds do not act on bodies
      ::- 身体在思想上行动,但思想在身体上不行动
    3.  - there is one substance with two aspects (mind/body)
      ::- 存在一种物质,具有两个方面(计分/体)
    4. - minds and bodies exist in separate dimensions and are coordinate
      1.   - minds and bodies are set in motion and coordinated from the beginning of time by a deity that creates the universe
        ::- 心灵和身体从一开始 由创造宇宙的神灵 启动并协调
      2.   - on the occasion of the mind making a decision the body is moved by the creator (deity) to do whatever the mind has decided to make the body do.
        ::- 在思想作出决策时,身体由创造者(神)感动,以便做任何决定使身体做的决定。

      ::- 心灵和身体存在于不同的维度上,是协调的- 心灵和身体从开始就由创造宇宙的神灵启动和协调- 在思想做出决定时,身体被创造者(神)感动, 做决定使身体做任何事情。

    Interactionism; History and Critics
    ::互动主义; 历史和批评

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    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers Goal
    ::EPISD 信息化解决问题者目标

    So with dualism comes a number of problems. The most conspicuous and troublesome are:
    ::因此,二元主义带来了一些问题。最明显和最麻烦的是:

    1. Where does the interaction take place?
      ::在哪里进行互动?
    2. How does the interaction take place?
      ::互动如何进行?
    3. The idea of the mental causing the physical to act appears to violate the principle of the conservation of energy
      ::精神上造成身体行为的思想似乎违反了节能原则。
    4. The idea of two realities appears to violate Ockam’s Razor , the principle of simplicity, which holds that if there is no need to postulate additional entities one should avoid doing so.
      ::两种现实的想法似乎违反了Ockam的Razor, 即简单原则, 该原则认为,

    Here are some of the dualists’ responses to these points and objections to them or criticisms of them.
    ::以下是二元论者对这些观点的一些回应和反对或批评。

    1. Non-physical entities do not have spatial properties, so there is no need to locate them in physical space. 
      ::无形实体没有空间属性,因此没有必要将其定位在物理空间。
    2. Such entities have their own metaphysical laws to follow.
      1. God, mind, spirit, and souls all operate within that realm.
        ::上帝、思想、精神和灵魂都在这个领域运作。

      ::这些实体有它们自己的形体法则可以遵循,上帝、思想、精神和灵魂都在这个领域运作。

    Objection:   what are those laws and how do they account for the results in the physical universe? 
    ::反对:这些法律是什么以及它们如何解释物理宇宙的结果?

    1. Dualists claim that: substances do not need to be similar in order to interact.
      ::二元论者声称:为了相互作用,物质不需要相似。
    2. There is also ample evidence that they do interact.
      ::还有大量证据表明,它们确实相互影响。

    Objections :
    ::反对:

    1. It was the dualists who established that the two substances were so different that they could not interact. 
      1. The source of the problem is the dualist distinctions of the two different substances.
        ::问题的根源是两种不同物质的二元区别。

      ::由二元论者确定,这两种物质非常不同,无法相互作用,问题的根源是两种不同物质的二元区别。
    2. The evidence for interaction could be explained in terms of brain actions alone. The obviousness of one’s causing one’s body to move by an act of the mind is not as obvious as it seems.
      ::互动的证据可以仅仅用大脑行动来解释。 一个人的身体因大脑行为而移动的明显性并不像看起来那么明显。
    3. The mind may not add energy to a closed system, it may be simply redirecting the energy already present.
      ::大脑可能不会给封闭的系统增加能量, 它可能只是改变已经存在的能量。

    Objection :  how does the mind affect the redirection if the mind is not itself made of energy or matter? 
    ::反对:如果思想本身不是由能量或物质决定的,思想如何影响改变方向?

    1. Dualists claim there is a compelling reason to hold that there are two substances and not just one.
      ::双重主义者声称,有令人信服的理由认为有两种物质,而不仅仅是一种物质。
    2. They claim it is needed to account for all phenomena of human experience including consciousness.
      ::他们声称,必须说明包括意识在内的所有人类经历现象。

    Objection :  The monists claim that it is not necessary at all and that they have a satisfactory explanation of such phenomena. 
    ::反对:一元论者声称,完全没有必要这样做,他们对这种现象有令人满意的解释。

    Substance Dualism Part 1 & 2
    ::第1和第2部分

     

     The other variations on mind body dualism
    ::心身的二元主义的其他变异

    1. Interactionism - minds and bodies exist and interact in some way (covered above)
      ::互动-思想和身体存在和以某种方式互动(见上文)
    2. Epiphenomenalism - body acts on mind but minds do not act on bodies
      ::情感-身体在思想上行动,但思想不在身体上行动

      What is the stream of consciousness?
    ::什么是意识的流?

      Double Aspect Theory : there is one substance with two aspects (mind/body)
    ::双重外观理论:有一种物质,有两个方面(计分/体)

       Spinoza on Mind and Body Interaction
    ::思考和身体互动的斯宾诺萨

      Baruch Spinoza and Double-Aspect Theory
    ::巴鲁赫·斯宾诺萨和双角度理论

    Born in Amsterdam,  S pinoza spent his life as a lens grinder. A J ew who had been expelled from the synagogue for unorthodoxy , he maintained few ties to either D utch or J ewish contemporaries and published little during his lifetime. The metaphysical masterpiece, de ethica ,  was first published in 1677, in order to retain the notion of God as the one true cause without sacrificing the idea of causality as operative in both the mental and the physical spheres. Spinoza abandoned D escartes' two-substance view in favor of what has come to be called double-aspect theory . Double-aspect theories are based on the notion that the mental and the physical are simply different aspects of one and the same substance. For S pinoza, that single substance was God. While agreeing with D escartes that the world of consciousness and that of extension are qualitatively separate, S pinoza rejected the C artesian view that consciousness and extension are attributes of two finite substances in favor of the notion that they are attributes of only one infinite substance. That substance, God, is the universal essence or nature of everything that exists. The direct implication of S pinoza's view is that while mental occurrences can determine only other mental occurrences and physical motions can determine only other physical motions, mind and body nonetheless exist in pre-established coordination , since the same divine essence forms the connections within both classes and cannot be self-contradictory . In the latter half of the 19th century, dual-aspect theories underwent a revival . 
    ::生于阿姆斯特丹, Spinoza 生于阿姆斯特丹, Spinoza 一生都以镜片研磨机为生。 一名犹太犹太人,曾因非正统理论而被逐出犹太会堂,他与荷兰或犹太时代没有什么联系,在一生中很少发表。 综合物理杰作《伦理学》于1677年首次出版,目的是在不牺牲心智和身体两个领域都起作用的因果关系概念的情况下,将上帝的概念保留为真正的原因之一。 Spinoza 抛弃了Descartes的两重物质观点,而这种观点更偏重于后来被称为“双层理论 ” 。 双层理论基于精神和身体是同一物质和同一物质的不同方面的概念。 对于Spinoza 来说,单一物质是上帝。 同意Descartes 认为意识世界和延伸的世界在本质上是独立的,而Cartesian认为意识和延伸是两种有限物质的属性的属性,而这种观念只属于一个无限物质。 物质,上帝是所有事物中的普遍性的本质或性质。 双层理论的本质和性质, 两者中都有。 在后两层的理性中,两层的理性之间, 也只能决定着同一的生理和生理结构的生理结构的自我意识, 。

    Occasionalism and Nicolas Malebranche
    ::偶发主义和尼古拉·马利布兰切

    Occasionalism is the idea that on the occasion of the mind making a decision the body is moved by the creator (deity) to do whatever the mind has decided to make the body do.  If the natural world is radically divided into the mental and the physical such that the physical is extended in space. 
    ::偶发主义是一种想法,即当思想做出决策时,身体会被创造者(神)感动到做任何决定让身体做决定的事情。 如果自然界被彻底地分为身心两部分,身体在空间中扩展。

    The mental is not, and if the nature of causality is such that causes and effects must have a necessary connection and be of a similar type, then mind/body interactionism of the C artesian sort is obviously untenable. Perhaps the first important attempt to deal with this contradiction in D escartes  was known  as occasionalism. The work of N icolas M alebranche (1638-1715) was probably the most influential purveyor of occasionalism. 
    ::精神上不是,如果因果关系的性质是因果关系必须具有必要的关联和类似类型,那么笛卡尔族的思维/身体互动显然站不住脚。 也许处理笛卡尔族中这一矛盾的第一个重要尝试被称为“偶然主义 ” 。 尼古拉斯·马利布兰奇(1638-1715)的工作可能是偶然主义最具影响力的推动者。

    Malebranche was born in Paris and was educated at the C ollège de la Marche and the S orbonne, where he began to read D escartes in 1664. A decade later, he published D e la R echerche de la V érité in which he argued that both of D escartes' substances, mind and body, are causally ineffective. God is the one and only true cause. Not only is there no influence of mind on body or of body on mind, there is no causality operative at all except insofar as god, the one true cause, intervenes to produce the regularities that occur in experience. Thus, for example, when a person wills to move a finger, which serves as the occasion for God to move the finger; when an object suddenly appears in a person's field of view, which serves as the occasion for God to produce a visual perception in the person's mind. 
    ::Malebranche生于巴黎,生于马戏团和索邦学院,1664年他在那里开始阅读笛卡尔语。十年后,他出版了De la Recherche de la Vérité,其中他争辩说,笛卡尔的物质、思想和身体都是因果无效的。上帝是唯一的真正原因。除了对身体或身体没有影响外,没有任何因果关系,除非神是真正的原因,干预产生经验中出现的规律。例如,有人愿意动手指,作为上帝动手指的机会;当物体突然出现在一个人的视野中,作为上帝在一个人的头脑中产生视觉感知的机会。

    Occasionalism and Nintendo
    ::偶然主义和任天堂

     

    Objections : 
    ::反对:

    • T his theory would make God an accomplice in every evil act.
      ::这个理论将使上帝成为一切邪恶行为的共犯。
    • The two aspects of the one substance are either illusory or if real then there is the dualism issue once again as to how they are to interact. 
      ::一种物质的两个方面要么是虚幻的,要么是真实的,那么在它们如何互动方面又出现了双重问题。

    Parallelism (Psychophysical)
    ::平行主义(心理物理)

    1. Minds and bodies exist in separate dimensions and are coordinated
      ::思想和团体存在不同层面,相互协调
    2. Pre-established harmony; minds and bodies are set in motion and coordinated from the beginning of time by a deity that creates the universe.
      ::预先形成的和谐;思想和身体从一开始就由创造宇宙的神灵启动并协调。

    Still another alternative to C artesian Interactionism is that of Psychophysical Parallelism . This view retains both the dualism of mind and body and the notion of a regular correlation between mental and physical events, but avoids any assumption of causal mind/body connection, direct or indirect. Psychophysical P arallelism eschews  Interactionism on the grounds that events as totally dissimilar as those of mind and body could not possibly affect one another.  It also rejects  O ccasionalism and D ual- A spect T heory on the grounds that no third entity, whatever that might be, could be responsible for such vastly different effects. Parallelists simply accept the fact that every mental event is correlated with a physical event in such a way that when one occurs, so too does the other. 
    ::卡尔提斯互动主义的另一种选择是精神物理平行主义。 这种观点既保留了精神和身体的二元主义,也保留了精神和身体事件之间经常关联的概念,但避免了任何直接或间接的因果关系/身体联系的假设。 心理物理平行主义回避了互动主义,理由是与心灵和身体事件完全不同的事件不可能相互影响。 同时,它也拒绝偶然主义和两面理论,理由是任何第三实体,不管它可能是什么,都不可能对如此巨大的不同的影响负责。 平行主义者只是接受一个事实,即每一个精神事件都与身体事件相关联,而当事件发生时,另一个事件也是如此。

    Parallelism in this form is usually traced to G ottfried W ilhelm L eibniz (1646-1716). Historian, mathematician, philosopher, scientist, and diplomat, L eibniz was born and received most of his education in L eipzig.  In 1676, after a period at M ainz and four years at Paris. He later went to H anover, where he spent the remainder of his life. An inveterate correspondent, contributor to scholarly journals, and creator of manuscripts, much of L eibniz' most important work was embodied in letters, published in article form, or left unpublished at his death.
    ::这种形式的平行主义通常追溯到戈特弗里德·威廉·莱布尼兹(1646-1716年):莱布尼兹出生于莱比锡,在莱比锡接受大部分教育;1676年,在缅因兹历经一段时期,在巴黎历时四年;后来,他去了汉诺威,在那里度过了余生;一位富有献身精神的记者,为学术期刊撰稿,以及手稿的创作者,莱布尼兹最重要的作品大多载于信件中,以文章形式发表,或者在他去世时未发表。

    Leibniz presented the famous articulation of P sychophysical Parallelism in which he adapted an occasionalist metaphor to support the view that soul and body exist in a pre-established harmony. Comparing soul and body to two clocks that agree perfectly, L eibniz argued that there are only three possible sources for this agreement.
    ::莱布尼兹(Leibniz)展示了著名的心理物理平行主义表达方式,他在其中改写了一个偶然的比喻,以支持一种观点,即灵魂和身体存在于预先形成的和谐中。 将灵魂和身体比作两个完全一致的时钟,莱布尼兹(Leibniz)认为这一协议只有三种可能的来源。

    1. It may occur through mutual influence (interactionism), through the efforts of a skilled workman who regulates the clocks and keeps them in accord (occasionalism),
      ::可以通过相互影响(互动主义),通过熟练工人的努力,管理时钟并保持时钟和谐(不时发生),实现上述目的。
    2. O r by virtue of the fact that they have been so constructed from the outset that their future harmony is assured (parallelism) 
      ::或由于它们从一开始就如此建构,保证了它们未来的和谐(并行主义)
    3. O r by the notion that mind and body exist in a harmony that has been pre-established by God from the moment of creation.
      ::或者认为思想和身体存在于上帝从创造之初就预先确定的和谐之中。

    Leibniz rejects interactionism because it is impossible to conceive of material particles passing from one substance to the other and occasionalism as invoking the intervention of a deus ex machina in a natural series of events. All that remains is parallelism - the notion that mind and body exist in a harmony that has been pre-established by God from the moment of creation. 
    ::Leibniz拒绝互动主义,因为不可能将物质粒子从一种物质传到另一种物质,也不可能将偶然主义视为在一系列自然事件中援引前机械师的干预。 剩下的只是平行主义 — — 即思想和身体存在于上帝从创造之时开始就预先确定的和谐中的概念。

    Objection : T his theory seriously challenges notions of human freedom. 
    ::反对:这一理论对人的自由概念提出了严重的挑战。

    Conclusion
    ::结论 结论 结论 结论 结论

    Each attempt to defend the dualism of mind and body meets with objections. If you want to take the dualist position that we have both a physical and non-physical mind that position needs to be defended with reasoning and evidence and not merely made to rest on faith based claim.  In Philosophy it must be supported by reasoning and evidence.  There must be both the exposition of the problem with the dualist claim and its solution.  The dualist position creates the mind body problem.  What is needed is a response to all the criticisms of the dualist position?  Remember it is the one position that creates the problem.  A dualist needs to account for all the evidence that disproves dualism and then needs to bridge the gap between the non-physical and the physical and solve the problem of interaction.
    ::捍卫思想和身体二元主义的每一项尝试都遇到反对。如果你想要采取二元主义立场,即我们既要有生理和非生理的思维,需要以推理和证据来捍卫立场,而不只是要依靠基于信仰的主张。在哲学中,它必须得到推理和证据的支持。必须既要用二元主义主张来解释问题,又要解决问题。二元主义立场造成了脑体问题。需要的是回应对二元主义立场的所有批评;要记住,造成问题的正是这个立场。二元主义需要考虑所有证据,证明双重主义,然后需要弥合非生理与物理之间的差距,并解决互动问题。

    Dualists also need to be aware that there is no claim about what a non-physical mind does that has not been demonstrated to be the result of brain activity and functioning.  Neuroscience discredits the claim of a non-physical mind. What evidence is offered by contemporary dualists of the existence of a non-physical mind?
    ::二元论者还需要认识到,对于非物理思维是什么没有被证明是大脑活动和功能的结果,没有任何权利主张。 神经科学不相信非物理思维的主张。 当代二元论者提供了哪些证据来证明非物理思维的存在?

    Mind refers to the aspects of intellect and consciousness manifested as combinations of thought, perception, memory, emotion, will and imagination, including all of the brain's conscious and unconscious cognitive processes.  "Mind" is often used to refer especially to the thought processes of reason.  Subjectively, mind manifests itself as a stream of consciousness.   If this is the definition of mind then reflexes, controlled responses, survival instincts are not part of the mind, but actually a part of the brain.  
    ::脑部是指智力和意识的各个方面,表现为思想、感知、记忆、情感、意志和想象力的结合,包括大脑的所有意识和意识认知过程。“Mind”常常被用来指理性的思维过程。从本质上说,头脑表现为意识的流。如果这是对思维的定义,那么反应、控制的反应,生存本能不是大脑的一部分,而实际上是大脑的一部分。

    Philosophical Application
    ::哲学应用

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     Suppose you are playing a game of pool with Jose Sharco. Jose is more skilled than you, and he is already working on the eight ball while you still have most of your balls on the table. Suddenly Jose stops and put down his cue. He closes his eyes and stands very still. At first you think that Jose is simply concentrating before he attempts to sink the eight ball. But after several minutes, you become irritated and ask him: “Hey, Jose, what are you doing? You’re supposed to take your shot.” Jose responds, “I’m in the process of taking my shot. I have decided to sink this last ball with my mind. Just give me a couple of minutes to focus all of my mental energies on the ball.”
    ::假设你正在和Jose Sharco玩游泳池游戏。 Jose比你更熟练,他已经在八号球上工作,而你的球还在你桌上。 Jose突然停下来,放下他的球杆。他闭上眼睛,站得非常安静。 起初,你认为Jose只是在试图击沉八号球之前才集中精神。 但几分钟后,你变得很恼火,问他 : “ 嘿, Jose,你在做什么?你应该开枪。 ”Jose回答 : “ 我正在拍摄我的球。我决定用我的脑子把最后一颗球打沉,给我几分钟,让我把精神能量集中到球上。 ”

    You respond, “Well Jose, you can stand there and think about sinking the eight ball until you’re blue in your face, but I can tell you one thing for sure: It’s not going go anywhere. In order to move the eight ball you need another physical object like a stick or a hand. Minds are not sufficient to move matter.”
    ::你回答道 : “ 那么,何塞,你可以站在那里,考虑下沉八球,直到你脸色变蓝为止,但我可以肯定地告诉你一件事:它不会去任何地方。 为了移动八球,你需要一个像棍子或手一样的物理物体。 头脑不足以移动物质。 ”

    What if Jose doesn’t accept your explanation? What would you tell him then?
    ::若若若不接受你的解释,

      Thought Experiment: Zombies
    ::思考实验:僵尸

    Chalmers claims that it’s possible for him to have a zombie twin, a creature physiologically and functionally identical to him, but lacking any conscious experience.
    ::Chalmers声称,他有可能有一个僵尸双胞胎,一个生理上和功能上都与他完全相同的生物,但却缺乏任何有意识的经验。

    (1) Does this possibility show that consciousness is nonphysical? Why or why not?
    :伤心1) 这种可能性是否表明意识是无形的?为什么或为什么不是?

    (2) Could a zombie (a creature with no mental states) do everything that a normal human being can do? Why or why not?
    :伤心2) 僵尸(没有精神状态的生物)能否尽一切正常人所能?为什么或为什么不能?

    Vocabulary
    ::词汇表

    lesson content

    EPISD Effective Bilingual Education Goal
    ::EPISD 有效双语教育目标