道德和道德发展

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Mores, Laws, Morality and Ethics
::更多、法律、道德和道德

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How are we to behave toward one another?  Morality is a social phenomenon.  Think about this. If a person is alone on some deserted island would anything that person did be moral or immoral? That person may do things that increase or decrease the chance for survival or rescue but would those acts be moral or immoral? Most of what we are concerned with in ethics is related to the situation in which humans are living with others. Humans are social animals. Society contributes to making humans what they are. For humans there arises the question of how are humans to behave toward one another.
::我们怎样对待彼此呢?道德是一种社会现象。你想想这个现象。一个人孤单地在荒岛上,如果一个人有任何道德或不道德的行为,那是道德或不道德的吗?这个人可以做增加或减少生存或救援机会的事情,但那些事情是道德或不道德的吗?我们在伦理上所关心的大多与人类与他人共同生活的情况有关。人类是社会动物。社会有助于使人类成为自己。因为人类会遇到人类如何彼此相待的问题。

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• What are the rules to be? 
  ::规则是什么?
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• How are we to learn of them? 
  ::我们如何了解他们?
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• Why do we need them?
  ::为什么我们需要它们?

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Why be moral?
::为什么是道德的?

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Consider what the world would be like if there were no traffic rules at all.  Would people be able to travel by automobiles, buses and other vehicles on the roadways if there were no traffic regulations?  The answer should be obvious to all rational members of the human species.  Without basic rules, no matter how much some would like to avoid them or break them, there would be chaos. The fact that some people break the rules is quite clearly and obviously not sufficient to do away with the rules. The rules are needed for transportation to take place.
::想想如果根本没有交通规则,世界会是什么样子。 如果没有交通规则,人们能否在公路上乘坐汽车、公共汽车和其他车辆?答案应该是人类所有理性成员都清楚的。没有基本规则,无论有人多么希望避免或打破这些规则,都会有混乱。有些人违反规则显然不足以取消规则。 交通规则是需要的。

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Why are moral rules needed?  For example, why do humans need rules about keeping promises, telling the truth and private property?  This answer should be fairly obvious.  Without such rules people would not be able to live among other humans.  People could not make plans, could not leave their belongings behind them wherever they went.  We would not know who to trust and what to expect from others.  Civilized, social life would not be possible.  So, the question is:   Why should humans care about being moral? 
::为什么需要道德规则?例如,为什么人类需要关于信守诺言、说出真相和私有财产的规则?答案应该是相当明显的。如果没有这样的规则,人们就无法与其他人共同生活。人们不能计划计划,不能把财产留在他们的身后,我们不知道谁可以信任谁,谁可以期望别人做什么。文明化的社会生活是不可能的。因此,问题是:为什么人类关心道德呢?

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Reasons :  
::理由:

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1. Sociological  
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   1. Without morality social life is nearly impossible.
      ::没有道德,社会生活几乎是不可能的。
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   2. Reputation 
      ::名词
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   3. Social censure
      ::社会谴责
   
   ::没有道德的社会学,社会生活几乎是不可能的。
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2. Psychological
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   1. People care about what others think of them. 
      ::人们关心别人对他们的看法
   
   ::心理心理学者关心别人对他们的看法。
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3. Conscience
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   1. S ome people care about doing the right thing. 
      ::有些人关心做正确的事
   
   ::良心 有些人关心做正确的事
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4. Theological
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   1. Some people care about what will happen after death, to their soul or spirit.
      ::有些人关心死后会发生什么 关心他们的灵魂或精神
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   2. For many religions there is an afterlife that involves a person’s being rewarded or punished for what they have done.
      ::对于许多宗教来说,后世会因某人的所作所为而给予奖赏或惩罚。
   
   ::有些人关心死后会发生什么,关心他们的灵魂或精神。 对于许多宗教来说,后世会有人因为自己的所作所为而得到奖赏或惩罚。

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So, that is out of the way. We know that we should be moral and so should others, without some sense of morality it would be very difficult if not impossible for large numbers of humans to be living with one another.  Now to the questions that deal with the rules of morality and all the rules which govern human behavior.  First, some terms need to be clarified
::因此,这有失偏颇。我们知道,我们应该道德,其他人也应该道德,如果没有某种道德感,许多人很难甚至不可能相互生活在一起。 现在,关于道德规则和所有规范人类行为规则的问题,需要澄清一些术语。 首先,需要澄清一些术语。

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• Etiquette – rules of conduct concerning matters of relatively minor importance but which do contribute to the quality of life.  Violations of such rules may bring social censure.  Etiquette deals with rules concerning dress and table manners and deal with politeness.  Violations would bring denunciations for being, rude  or  crude or gross .  Friendships would not likely break up over violations of these rules as they would for violating rules of morality, e.g., lies and broken promises!  These rules are not just “made up by a bunch of old British broads” as one student once volunteered in class.  But they are made up by people to encourage a better life.  In each society there are authorities on these matters and there are collections of such rules.  Many books are sold each year to prospective brides who want to observe the proper rules of decorum and etiquette.  There are newspapers that have regular features with questions and answers concerning these matters.
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  • This deals with matters such as when do you place the napkin on your lap when you sit at a dining table? 
    ::这涉及到诸如你坐在餐桌上时 什么时候把餐巾纸放在大腿上之类的事?
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  • How long do you wait on hold on a telephone call with someone with call waiting?
    ::你和有电话等待的人在电话里等多久?
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  • Should you use a cell phone at the dining table? 
    ::餐桌上应该用手机吗?
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  • Should you have a cell phone on in class? 
    ::你上课时应该有手机吗?
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  • In a movie theater?
    ::在电影院?
  
  ::Etiquette — — 有关相对次要但有助于生活质量的相对次要事项的行为准则 — — 有关相对次要但有助于提高生活质量的行为准则。违反这些规则可能会带来社会谴责。 违反这些规则可能会带来有关服装和餐桌礼礼礼礼和礼仪的指责。 违反这些规则会给人带来谴责,粗鲁或粗俗或粗俗。 友谊不会因为违反这些规则而破裂,因为他们违反道德规则,例如谎言和违背诺言。 这些规则不仅仅是“由一群英国老女人”作为一名学生在课堂上自愿成立的。 违反这些规则可能会带来社会谴责。 违反这些规则可能带来社会谴责。 违反这些规则可能会带来社会谴责。 违反这些规则会带来有关服装和礼仪礼仪的规则。 友谊不会因为违反道德规则而破裂,比如谎言和违背诺言而破裂! 这些规则不仅仅是“ 由一群英国老女人” 所建立的,而是作为一名学生在课堂上自愿参加的。 这些规则可能由人们组成,但是由人们组成来鼓励更好的生活。 违反这些规则是: 每个社会都有关于这些事项的当局和收藏这类规则。 每年将许多书卖给希望遵守礼仪礼仪的新娘。 想要遵守礼仪礼仪的新娘。 。 每年都有关于这些礼仪和礼仪礼仪礼仪的报纸的报纸上的经常有关于这些事项的问题。 有问题的问题。 。 报纸有固定。 涉及这些问题的疑问。 这些事。
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• Mores - customs and rules of conduct
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  • Morality- rules of right conduct concerning matters of greater importance.  Violations of such can bring disturbance to individual conscience and social sanctions.
    ::道德 -- -- 关于更重要事项的正确行为规则,违反这些规则会扰乱个人良知和社会制裁。
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  • Law- rules which are enforced by society.  Violations may bring a loss of or reduction in freedom and possessions.
    ::由社会执行的法律规则,违法行为可能导致丧失或减少自由和财产。
  
  ::道德 -- -- 关于更重要事项的正确行为规则 -- -- 违反这些规则会扰乱个人良知和社会制裁;社会执行的法律规则 -- -- 违反规则可能导致丧失或减少自由和财产。

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What is the relation of law to morality?  They are not the same.  You can't equate the two.  Just because something is immoral does not make it illegal and just because something is illegal it does not make it immoral.
::法律与道德有什么关系?法律与道德有什么关系?它们不一样。你不能将两者等同起来。因为有些不道德的东西并不违法,而有些违法的东西并不使它不道德。

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Things that are illegal but are thought to be moral (for many).
::那些是违法的,但却被认为是道德的(对于许多人),

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• Drinking under age.
  ::饮酒不足年龄。
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• Driving over the speed limit.
  ::超速驾驶
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• Smoking marijuana.
  ::抽大麻
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• Cheating on a tax return.
  ::偷税漏税
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• Splitting a cable signal to send it to more than one television. 播放段落

  People do not think of themselves or of others as being immoral for breaking these laws.
  ::人们不认为自己或他人违反这些法律是不道德的。

  
  ::人们并不认为自己或其他人违反这些法律是不道德的。

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Things that are immoral (for many) but are not illegal.
::那些事物是不道德的,不是违法的。

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• Cheating on your spouse.
  ::欺骗你的配偶
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• Breaking a promise to a friend.
  ::违背对朋友的承诺
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• Using abortion as a birth control measure.
  ::将堕胎作为一种节育措施。

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What is the relation of morality to law?  Well, when enough people think that something is immoral they will work to have a law that will forbid it and punish those that do it.  When enough people think that something is moral, they will work to have a law that forbids it and punishes those that do it repealed or, in other words, if there is a law that says doing X is wrong and illegal and enough people no longer agree with that then those people will work to change that law. such as the 18th Amendment (Prohibition) was repealed by the 21st Amendment.
::道德与法律的关系是什么? 那么,当足够多的人认为某件事是不道德的,他们就会工作来制定一部法律来禁止它并惩罚做它的人。 当足够多的人认为某件事是道德的,他们就会工作来制定一部法律来禁止它并惩罚那些做它的人,或者,换句话说,如果有一部法律说做X是错误和非法的,而且足够多的人不再同意,那么这些人就会努力改变这项法律。 比如,第18项修正案(禁止)被第21项修正案废除。

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• Moral Philosophy is a discipline that seeks to understand and to justify moral principles
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  • A person is moral if that person follows the moral rules.
    ::一个人如果遵循道德规则,就是道德的。
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  • A person is immoral if that person breaks the moral rules.  
    ::一个人如果违反道德规则,就是不道德的。
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  • A person is amoral if that person does not know about or care about the moral rules.
    ::一个人如果不知道或不在乎道德规则,就是不道德的。
  
  ::道德哲学是一种纪律,它寻求理解道德原则并为其辩护; 一个人如果遵循道德规则,就是道德的; 一个人违反道德规则,就是不道德的; 一个人如果不了解或不关心道德规则,就是不道德的。
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• Ethics is a discipline created to establish principles of the good and those of right behavior.
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  • Ethics deals with the basic principles that serve as the basis for moral rules. 
    ::道德涉及作为道德规则基础的基本原则。
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  • Different principles will produce different rules.
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    • A person is ethical if that person is aware of the basic principles governing moral conduct and acts in a manner consistent with those principles. 
      ::一个人如果了解道德行为的基本原则,并以符合这些原则的方式行事,即符合道德。
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    • If the person does not do so they are unethical.
      ::如果该人不这样做,他们就是不道德的。
    
    ::不同的原则将产生不同的规则,如果一个人了解道德行为的基本原则,并且以符合这些原则的方式行事,那么他就是道德的,如果他没有这样做,那就是不道德的。
  
  ::道德是确立善与正确行为原则的纪律。道德涉及作为道德规则基础的基本原则。不同的原则将产生不同的规则。一个人如果了解道德行为的基本原则并以符合这些原则的方式行事,就是道德的。如果这个人不这样做,就是不道德的。
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• Meta Ethics - is a discussion of ethical theories and language
  ::Mete道德 - 讨论道德理论和语言

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 So, ethics and morality are not the same things.
::因此,伦理和道德不是一回事。

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Morality vs. Ethics
::道德与道德与道德

  

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  Read
::已读

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People often think and many claim that morality is dependent on religion. Some claim religious morality is superior to secular morality. Some refer to the nearly universal association of morality with religion on planet Earth as evidence in support of their claims. This is backwards. Research is showing that morality is linked with and dependent upon both physical structures and functioning of the brain and on cultural inheritances.
::人们常常认为和许多人声称道德取决于宗教。有些人声称宗教道德优于世俗道德。有些人说道德与地球上的宗教几乎是普遍联系的道德与宗教是支持其主张的证据。这是倒退的。研究表明道德与大脑的物理结构和功能以及文化遗产相关联并取决于它们。

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Morality Results From Both Genes and Memes
::基因和 memes 的道德成果

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Neuroscience is finding the brain structures and functioning that make for the "ethical brain".  How is this so?  Humans are social animals and as Aristotle put it zoon politikon .  As such they have evolved in part due to a capacity to relate to others and have empathy and sympathy for others that serves as the base for acceptance of basic rules of conduct needed to live with others in relative peace sufficient to support social or group life and then the advantages of social life.  Evolutionary Psychology is finding/hypothesizing the evolution of moral notions as an expression of hard-wiring in the brain. The brain appears to have structures evolved and passed on through our genetic makeup ( genes ) that provide for  empathy and sympathy  for the social species of Homo Sapiens.  Morality is a result of an expression of those operations. Particular moral expressions or rules are enunciated and passed on as cultural inheritances and thus memes.
::神经科学正在寻找“ 道德大脑” 所需要的大脑结构和功能。 如何呢? 人类是社会动物,正如亚里士多德所言 : “ 政治动物 ” 。 因此,人类之所以演变,部分是由于能够与他人联系,并同情和同情他人,从而作为接受基本行为规则的基础,从而与他人生活在相对和平中,足以支持社会或群体生活,然后是社会生活的优势。 进化心理学正在发现/假设道德概念的演变是大脑中硬交织的一种表现。 大脑似乎已经通过我们的基因结构(基因)而演变和传递,这些结构为同性萨比安人的社会物种提供了同情和同情。 道德是这些行动的一种表现结果。 某些道德表达或规则被作为文化遗产,因此被作为迷因。

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The Primatologist, Frans de Waal, was one of many who have argued that the roots of human morality lie in social animals such as the primates, including apes and monkeys. The feelings of empathy and expectations of reciprocity are necessary for the behaviors needed to make any mammalian group exist as individuals living in the midst of others. This set of feelings and expectations of reciprocity may be taken as the basis for human morality. Neuroscientists are locating that sense in mirror neurons in the brain.
::原始学家弗朗斯·德瓦尔(Frans de Waal)是许多人认为人类道德的根源在于诸如灵长类动物等社会动物,包括猿类和猴子。 同情感和对等期望对于使任何哺乳动物群体作为生活在他人中的个人而存在的行为是必要的。 这一系列对等感和期望可以被视为人类道德的基础。 神经科学家们正在大脑镜中神经元中找到这种感觉。

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Morality is as firmly grounded in N eurobiology as anything else we do or are. Once thought of as purely spiritual matters; honesty, guilt, and the weighing of ethical dilemmas are traceable to specific areas of the brain. It should not surprise us, therefore, to find animal parallels. The human brain is a product of evolution. Despite its larger volume and greater complexity, it is fundamentally similar to the central nervous system of other mammals.
::道德与我们所做的或现在所做的任何事情一样,都牢固地根植于神经生物学中。 一旦被认为是纯粹的精神问题,诚实、内疚和道德困境的权衡可以追溯到大脑的特定领域。因此,找到动物平行并不奇怪。人类大脑是进化的产物。尽管其体积更大,复杂性也更大,但它与其他哺乳动物的中枢神经系统有着根本的相似性。

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Everywhere humans are found and where evidence exists of human culture there is evidence of a sense of morality.  While the particular moral rules may not be the same there is significant similarities and a commonalities in purposes served by moral codes. Morality is needed for human community and humans demonstrate this worldwide. There is evidence that all societies have morality. Is this because they could not exist without some sense of how we are to behave? Human beings are social beings, they have language which is a social creation.  Humans could not live in groups without some sort of sense of how to behave in ways that enhance the survival of the group, hence sympathy and empathy are needed and they are part of the basis for morality--a "moral sense".
::在所有人类被发现的地方,凡有人类文化证据的地方,都有道德感的证据。虽然特定的道德规则可能不同,但道德准则所服务的目的却有很大的相似性和共同性。人类社区和人类需要道德道德在全世界范围内证明这一点。有证据表明,所有社会都有道德。这是否因为没有我们如何行事的某种感觉就不可能存在?人类是社会人,语言是一种社会创造。人类不能生活在一些群体中,没有某种意识来增进群体的生存,因此需要同情和同情,它们是道德-一种“道德感”的基础的一部分。

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There is now the study of Evolutionary Ethics which claims that the moral nature of man has reached its present standard, partly through the advancement of his reasoning powers and consequently of a just public opinion, but especially from his sympathies been rendered more tender and widely diffused through the effects of habit, example, instruction, and reflection. It is not improbable that after long practice virtuous tendencies may be inherited. With the more civilized races, the conviction of the existence of an all-seeing Deity has had a potent influence on the advance of morality.
::现在的《进化伦理学研究》宣称,人的道德性质已经达到了目前的标准,部分是通过推理能力的进步,并由此形成了公正的公众舆论,但特别是他的同情心更加温和,并且通过习惯、例如、指导和思考的影响而广为传播。 经过长期实践之后,良性倾向可以传承是不可能的。 随着文明程度的提高,对无所不见的神性的信念对道德进步产生了强大的影响。

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Ultimately man does not accept the praise or blame of his fellows as his sole guide, though few escape this influence, but his habitual convictions, controlled by reason, afford him the safest rule. His conscience then becomes the supreme judge and monitor. Nevertheless the first foundation or origin of the moral sense lies in the social instincts, including sympathy, and these instincts no doubt were primarily gained, as in the case of the lower animals, through natural selection.
::归根结底,人类不接受将同事的赞美或指责作为其唯一的引导者,尽管很少有人能逃脱这一影响,但他的习惯信念在理性控制下给了他最安全的统治权。 然后他的良心成为了最高法官和监督者。 然而,道德意识的第一个基础或起源在于社会本能,包括同情,毫无疑问,这些本能主要是通过自然选择获得的,如低级动物那样。

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Read
::已读

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Consider the following three scenarios. For each, fill in the blank with morally “ obligatory ”, “ permissible ” or “ forbidden .”
::考虑以下三种情况。 对于每一种情况,请用道德上的“义务”、“允许”或“禁止”填空。

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1. A runaway trolley is about to run over five people walking on the tracks. A railroad worker is standing next to a switch that can turn the trolley onto a side track, killing one person, but allowing the five to survive. Flipping the switch is ______.
   ::铁路工人站在开关旁边,开关可以把电车开到侧路,杀死一人,但让五人幸存。 开关是 。
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2. You pass by a small child drowning in a shallow pond and you are the only one around. If you pick up the child, she will survive and your pants will be ruined. Picking up the child is _______.
   ::你路过一个在浅池塘溺水的小孩,而你是唯一一个在附近的人。如果你接孩子,她就会活下来,你的裤子会毁了。接孩子是________________________________________________________________________________________________________。
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3. Five people have just been rushed into a hospital in critical care, each requiring an organ to survive. There is not enough time to request organs from outside the hospital. There is, however, a healthy person in the hospital’s waiting room. If the surgeon takes this person’s organs, he will die but the five in critical care will survive. Taking the healthy person’s organs is _______.
   ::5个人刚刚被送往医院接受重症监护,每人需要器官才能存活。 没有足够的时间从医院外面要求器官。 但是,医院的候诊室里有一个健康的人。 如果外科医生把病人的器官取走,他就会死,但5个人将活下来。 将健康人的器官取走是____________________。

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If you judged case 1 as permissible, case 2 as obligatory, and case 3 as forbidden, then you are like the 1500 subjects around the world who responded to these dilemmas on our web-based moral sense test [http://moral.wjh.edu]. On the view that morality is God’s word, atheists should judge these cases differ ently from people with religious background and beliefs, and when asked to justify their responses, should bring forward different explanations. For example, since atheists lack a moral compass, they should go with pure self-interest, and walk by the drowning baby. Results show something completely different. There were no statistically significant differences between subjects with or without religious backgrounds, with approximately 90% of subjects saying that it is permissible to flip the switch on the boxcar, 97% saying that it is obligatory to rescue the baby, and 97% saying that is forbidden to remove the healthy man’s organs.  When asked to justify why some cases are permissible and others forbidden, subjects are either clueless or offer explanations that cannot account for the differences in play.  Importantly, those with a religious background are as clueless or incoherent as atheists.
::如果你认为案件1是允许的,案件2是强制性的,案件3是被禁止的,那么你就像全世界1500个在网上道德感测试[http://moral.wjh.edu]中回应这些困境的1500个主体一样。 从道德是上帝的言辞的观点看,无神论者应该对这些案件作出不同于具有宗教背景和信仰的人的判断,当被要求为其回应提供理由时,应该提出不同的解释。例如,由于无神论者缺乏道德指南,他们应该带着纯粹的自我利益,由溺水婴儿步行。结果显示了完全不同的东西。在具有宗教背景或没有宗教背景的主体之间没有统计上的重大差异,大约有90%的主体说可以打开箱子,97%的主体说拯救婴儿是强制性的,97%的主体说禁止移除健康人的器官。 当被要求说明为什么某些案例是允许的,而其他人则被禁止时,问题要么是模糊的,要么是无法解释的,要么是无法解释的。 确实,那些具有宗教背景的人是没有道理的,或者是不理解的。

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These studies begin to provide empirical support for the idea that like other psychological faculties of the mind, including language and mathematics, we are endowed with a moral faculty that guides our intuitive judgments of right and wrong, interacting in interesting ways with the local culture. These intuitions reflect the outcome of millions of years in which our ancestors have lived as social mammals, and are part of our common inheritance, as much as our opposable thumbs are.
::这些研究开始为以下想法提供经验支持:与其他心理心理能力一样,包括语言和数学,我们拥有指导我们直觉判断对错的道德能力,以有趣的方式与当地文化互动。 这些直觉反映了我们祖先作为社会哺乳动物生活了数百万年的结果,也是我们共同遗产的一部分,就像我们的对立拇指一样。

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Neuroethics and the Trolley Dilemma
::神经伦理学和Trolley三角形

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Research in Neuroscience has proceeded so far as to call into discussion how humans are responsible for their actions and the degree to which all ethical thinking or morality is merely post facto rationalizations for the near automatic responses made to situations by the brain. Morality may be rooted deep in the evolved workings of human brains with its mirror neurons and the operation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex.
::神经科学的研究已经深入到人们讨论人类如何对其行动负责,以及所有道德思维或道德在多大程度上仅仅是对大脑情况几乎自动反应的事后合理化。 道德感可能深深植根于人类大脑及其镜像神经元的进化过程和前脑皮层的手术。

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  Read
::已读

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However, if you reflect a moment on the question of how people become moral ( genes for brain structures and functioning) and how they then acquire the exact moral precepts or rules ( menes -moral codes and ethical principles ) by which they live you will probably realize that a number of factors come into play in the development of personal morality.  Indeed you will probably think that people become moral or learn about morality due to their involvement with:
::然而,如果你思考一下人们如何成为道德(大脑结构和功能的基因)以及他们如何获得其生活所依据的确切道德戒律或规则(道德守则和道德原则)的问题,你可能会意识到,一些因素在个人道德的发展中起了作用。 事实上,你可能会认为,人们会因为参与以下活动而成为道德或学习道德:

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• Parents
  ::父母父母
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• Siblings
  ::团团
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• Friends
  ::朋友之友
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• School
  ::学校学校
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• Religion
  ::宗教 宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教 宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教宗教
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• Media- television, films, videos, music, music videos
  ::媒体电视、电影、录像、音乐、音乐录像
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• Advertising
  ::广告广告广告

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How exactly each person develops their ideas about right and wrong is a subject being studied by psychologists. This type of study is part of what is known as Moral Psychology.  One of the most famous of the psychologists who does such studies is Lawrence Kohlberg.  He has a theory of moral development based upon his research with people from very young ages through the adult years.
::心理学家正在研究每个人如何发展对错的观念。 这种研究是所谓的道德心理学的一部分。 进行这种研究的最著名的心理学家之一是劳伦斯·科尔贝格。 他有一个道德发展理论,其基础是从小到大人们的研究。

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  Stages of moral development  
::道德发展阶段

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1. Pre-conventional: concern for self
   ::常规前:关注自我

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   1. Reward / Punishment
      ::奖励/惩罚
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   2. Reciprocity
      ::互惠
   
   ::回报/惩罚
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2. Conventional: concern for self and others
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   1. Ideal Model -Conformity
      ::理想模式 - 合规性
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   2. Law and Order
      ::法律和秩序
   
   ::常规:关心自我和其他方面:理想模式 -- -- 合规法和秩序
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3. Post Conventional: concern for others
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   1. Social Contract
      ::社会契约
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   2. Universal Principles
      ::普遍原则
   
   ::后常规:对他人的关注

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Read
::已读

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  Heinz Dilemma
::海因兹二角形

 

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Kohlberg used scenarios to elicit responses from his subjects concerning their thinking about what makes an act right or wrong. He was less concerned with their answer as to what they would do or approve of in others as he was interested in their reason for thinking as they did.  Here is a simplification of his famous Heinz Scenario: How would you solve the following scenario which Kohlberg used on his research subjects? 
::Kohlberg用各种假想来征求他研究对象对什么行为是对的或错的看法。他不太关心他们对于什么行为是对的或对别人的赞同的答案,就像他对其思考的理由感兴趣一样。 这是他著名的Heinz假想的简化:你将如何解决Kohlberg在研究对象中使用的下列假想?

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• A man named Heinz had a dying wife. The wife had an almost fatal disease. The local druggist owned a $20,000 drug that could save her. Heinz could not raise the money in time and he certainly did not have the cash to buy the drug. Heinz therefore made a decision and that night he broke into the drug store and stole some of the medication.
  ::一位名叫海因茨的男子有一个临死的妻子,妻子患有几乎致命的疾病。当地药剂师拥有20,000美元的药物,可以救她。海因茨无法及时筹集钱款,他肯定没有现金买药。海因茨因此做出了决定,当晚他闯进药店偷走了一些药品。

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Should Heinz have done that? Why do you think that?
::海因茨应该这么做吗?

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Kohlberg thought that fewer than 25% of people ever progress beyond the fourth stage and do so because of some event that presses them to develop further. Events can force a person to move further.  The decision to have an abortion, to resist the draft, or to assist your mother lying on her death bed to die quickly with less pain and suffering, are the sorts of events for which individuals must come to face to with to understand what it is that makes an action right or wrong.  It is at those times and through those types of events that individuals come to learn what their values are, who they are, and what their moral rules will be.  Consulting with friends and religious advisors about such matters will bring advice but leave still leaves the decision-making about the rules and the actions to the individual.
::Kohlberg认为,只有不到25%的人在第四阶段之后取得了进步,这是因为某些事件迫使他们进一步发展。事件可以迫使一个人进一步前进。决定堕胎、抵制草案或帮助躺在死床上的母亲在痛苦和痛苦减少的情况下迅速死去,是个人必须面对的某种事件,以了解什么是行动对错。正是在这些时候和通过这些事件,个人才开始了解自己的价值观是什么,他们是谁,他们的道德规则是什么。 与朋友和宗教顾问就这类问题进行磋商将带来建议,但仍可以让个人就规则和行动作出决策。

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Read
::已读

•  

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Philosophical Application
::哲学应用

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Vocabulary
::词汇表