美美家庭

Source: Data from Wilcox, W. B. (Ed.). (2009).  The state of our unions, 2009: Marriage in America . Charlottesville: The National Marriage Project, University of Virginia.
::资料来源:Wilcox, W. B. (Ed.),(2009年),《2009年美国婚姻状况》,夏洛茨维尔:弗吉尼亚大学国家婚姻项目。

Reasons for Divorce

We cannot be certain about why the divorce rate rose so much during the 1960's and 1970's, but we can rule out two oft-cited causes. First, there is little reason to believe that marriages became any less happy during this period. We do not have good data to compare marriages then and now, but the best guess is that marital satisfaction did not decline after the 1950's ended. What did change was that people after the 1950's became more willing to seek divorces in marriages that were already unhappy.
::我们无法肯定为什么1960年代和1970年代离婚率上升如此之大,但我们可以排除两个经常提到的原因。 首先,没有理由相信婚姻在这一时期变得不那么幸福。我们当时和现在都没有很好的数据来比较婚姻,但最好的猜测是婚姻满意度在1950年代结束后并没有下降。 变化是1950年代以后的人更愿意在已经不幸福的婚姻中寻求离婚。

© Thinkstock
::智商

Another reason divorce rose during the 1960s and 1970s may be that divorces became easier to obtain legally. In the past, most states required couples to prove that one or both had committed actions such as mental cruelty, adultery, or other such behaviors in order to get divorced. Today almost all states have no-fault divorce laws that allow a couple to divorce if they say their marriage has failed from irreconcilable differences. Because divorce has become easier and less expensive to obtain, more divorces occur. But are no-fault divorce laws a cause or result of the post-1950s rise in the divorce rate? The divorce rate increase preceded the establishment of most states’ no-fault laws, but it is probably also true that the laws helped make additional divorces more possible. Thus no-fault divorce laws are probably one reason for the rising divorce rate after the 1950s, b ut only one reason (Kneip & Bauer, 2009). Kneip, T., & Bauer, G. (2009). Did unilateral divorce laws raise divorce rates in Western Europe? Journal of Marriage & Family, 71 (3), 592–607.
::20世纪60年代和1970年代,离婚率上升的另一个原因是离婚率在1960年代和1970年代期间上升。 离婚率上升的另一个原因可能是离婚在法律上变得更容易。 过去,大多数州要求夫妇双方证明其中一方或双方都实施了精神虐待、通奸或其他类似行为,以便离婚。 如今,几乎所有州都没有离婚法允许夫妻双方离婚,如果他们说他们的婚姻因不可调和的分歧而失败的话。 由于离婚变得比较容易且费用较低,离婚率会增加。 但非过失离婚法是否是1950年代后离婚率上升的原因或结果? 离婚率在大多数州制定无过失法之前就有所上升了,但也许法律帮助了更多的离婚。 因此,无过失离婚法可能是1950年代后离婚率上升的原因之一,但只有一个原因(Kneip & Bauer,2009年),Kneip,T.,和Bauer,G.(2009年)。单方面离婚法是否提高了西欧的离婚率?婚姻和家庭杂志,71(3),592-607。

We have just looked at possible reasons for divorce rate trends, but we can also examine the reasons why certain marriages are more or less likely to end in divorce within a given time period. Although, as noted earlier, 40%–50% of all new marriages will probably end in divorce, it is also true that some marriages are more likely to end than others. Family scholars identify several correlates of divorce (Clarke-Stewart & Brentano, 2006; Wilcox, 2009). Clarke-Stewart, A., & Brentano, C. (2006).  Divorce: Causes and consequences . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press; Wilcox, W. B. (Ed.). (2009).  The state of our unions, 2009: Marriage in America . Charlottesville: The National Marriage Project, University of Virginia.  An important one is age at marriage: teenagers who get married are much more likely to get divorced than people who marry well into their 20s or beyond, partly because they have financial difficulties and are not yet emotionally mature. A second correlate of divorce is social class: people who are poor at the time of their marriage are more likely to get divorced than people who begin their marriages in economic comfort, as the stress of poverty causes stress in marriage. Divorce is thus another negative life chance of people at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder.
::我们刚刚审视了离婚率趋势的可能原因,但我们也可以研究某些婚姻在特定时期内可能以离婚结束的原因。尽管如前所述,在所有新婚姻中,40-50%可能以离婚告终,但有些婚姻也确实更有可能结束。家庭学者确定了离婚的若干相关因素(Clarke-Stewart & Brentano,2006年;Wilcox,2009年;Clarke-Stewart,A., & Brentano,C.(2006年);离婚:原因和后果。纽黑文,CT:耶鲁大学出版社;Wilcox,W.B.(Ed.)(2009年)。我们的工会状况,2009年:美国婚姻;Charlottsville:弗吉尼亚大学国家婚姻项目。一个重要的是结婚年龄:结婚的青少年比20多岁或20岁以上结婚的人更有可能离婚,部分原因是他们有经济困难,而且情绪尚未成熟。离婚的第二个相关因素是社会阶层:在婚姻期间贫穷的人,因此,在婚姻期间开始陷入社会经济压力的人比离婚的可能性更大。

Effects of Divorce and Single-Parent Households
::离婚和单亲家庭的影响

Much research exists on the effects of divorce on spouses and their children, and scholars do not always agree on what these effects are. One thing is clear: divorce plunges many women into poverty or near-poverty (Gadalla, 2008). Gadalla, T. M. (2008). Gender differences in poverty rates after marital dissolution: A longitudinal study.  Journal of Divorce & Remarriage, 49 (3/4), 225–238.  Many have been working only part time or not at all outside the home, and divorce takes away their husband’s economic support. Even women working full time often have trouble making ends meet, because, as we saw in earlier chapters, so many are in low-paying jobs. One-parent families headed by a woman for any reason are much poorer ($30,296 in 2008 median annual income) than those headed by a man ($44,358). Meanwhile, the median income of married-couple families is much higher ($72,589). Almost 30% of all single-parent families headed by women are officially poor.
::对离婚对配偶及其子女的影响进行了大量研究,学者们并不总是同意这些影响。 有一点是清楚的:离婚使许多妇女陷入贫困或接近贫困(Gadalla,2008年;Gadalla,T.M.(2008);婚姻解体后贫困率的性别差异:纵向研究。 《离婚和再婚杂志》,49(3/4),225-238。 许多人只从事兼职工作或根本不在家外工作,离婚夺走了丈夫的经济支持。即使全职工作的妇女也往往难以满足生活需要,因为正如我们在前几章中看到的那样,许多妇女从事低薪工作。 由妇女为户主的单亲家庭无论出于什么原因都比由男子为户主的家庭贫困得多(2008年平均年收入为30 296美元 ) ( 44 358美元 ) 。 与此同时,已婚夫妇家庭的中位收入要高得多(72 589美元 ) 。

Although the economic consequences of divorce seem clear, what are the psychological consequences for husbands, wives, and their children? Are they better off if a divorce occurs, worse off, or about the same? The research evidence is very conflicting. Many studies find that divorced spouses are, on average, less happy and have poorer mental health after their divorce, but some studies find that happiness and mental health often improve after divorce (Williams, 2003; Waite, Luo, & Lewin, 2009). Williams, K. (2003). Has the future of marriage arrived? A contemporary examination of gender, marriage, and psychological well-being.  Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 44 , 470–487; Waite, L. J., Luo, Y., & Lewin, A. C. (2009). Marital happiness and marital stability: Consequences for psychological well-being.  Social Science Research, 38 (1), 201–212.  The post-divorce time period that is studied may affect what results are found: for some people psychological well-being may decline in the immediate aftermath of a divorce, given how difficult the divorce process often is, but rise over the next few years. The contentiousness of the marriage may also matter. Some marriages ending in divorce have been filled with hostility, conflict, and sometimes violence, while other marriages ending in divorce have not been very contentious at all, even if they have failed. Individuals seem to fare better psychologically after ending a very contentious marriage but fare worse after ending a less contentious marriage (Amato & Hohmann-Marriott, 2007). Amato, P. R., & Hohmann-Marriott, B. (2007). A comparison of high- and low-distress marriages that end in divorce.  Journal of Marriage & Family, 69 (3), 621–638.
::虽然离婚的经济后果似乎显而易见,但是离婚的经济后果似乎显而易见,但是离婚对丈夫、妻子及其子女产生了什么样的心理后果,这些后果似乎显而易见,对丈夫、妻子及其子女的心理后果是显而易见的,是什么样的?如果离婚发生时,对丈夫、妻子及其子女的心理后果是什么样的心理后果呢?如果离婚发生时,她们会更好吗?研究证据非常矛盾。许多研究发现离婚后,离婚配偶一般不快乐,离婚后心理健康和心理健康也较差,但有些研究发现离婚后幸福和心理健康往往改善(Williams,2003年;Wiams,2003年;We、We离婚、We、We、Wef、Wef、Wef、Web、L.L.J.、Loo、Y、Lewin、A.C.2009年。婚姻幸福和婚姻稳定:心理健康的后果。社会科学研究,38(1)、Lape、Loo、Lolo、Lew、Lews,2009年。所研究的离婚后时期可能影响到所有结果:对于一些离婚后的人来说,一个心理状况可能会下降,一些离婚后,因为有些离婚后,而离婚结束的婚姻过程往往结束,而其他的结束过程也开始。

What about the children? Parents used to stay together “for the sake of the children,” thinking that divorce would cause their children more harm than good. Studies of this issue generally find that children in divorced families are indeed more likely, on average, to do worse in school, to use drugs and alcohol and suffer other behavioral problems, and to experience emotional distress and other psychological problems (Sun & Li, 2009; Amato & Cheadle, 2008). Sun, Y., & Li, Y. (2009). Parental divorce, sibship size, family resources, and children’s academic performance.  Social Science Research, 38 (3), 622–634; Amato, P. R., & Cheadle, J. E. (2008). Parental divorce, marital conflict and children’s behavior problems: A comparison of adopted and biological children.  Social Forces, 86 (3), 1139–1161.
::子女呢? 父母曾经“为了孩子”在一起,认为离婚会给子女带来更多的伤害。 对这一问题的研究通常发现,离异家庭中的儿童在学校里,吸毒和酗酒,遭受其他行为问题,以及经历情感痛苦和其他心理问题的可能性更大(Sun & Li,2009年;Amato & Cheadle,2008年;Sun,Y. & Li,Y.(2009);父母离婚,Sun,Y. & Li,Y. (2009);父母离婚,Sibship规模,家庭资源和儿童的学术表现。 社会科学研究,38(3),622-634;Amato,P.R,Cheadle,J.E.(2008)。 父母离婚、婚姻冲突和儿童行为问题:被收养儿童与生物儿童的比较。 社会力量,86(3),1139-161。

However, it is sometimes difficult in these studies to determine whether the effects on children stem from the divorce itself or, instead, from the parental conflict that led to the divorce. This problem raises the possibility that children may fare better if their parents end a troubled marriage than if their parents stay married. The evidence on this issue generally mirrors the evidence for spouses just cited: children generally fare better if their parents end a highly contentious marriage, but they fare worse if their parents end a marriage that has not been highly contentious (Booth & Amato, 2001; Hull, Meier, & Ortyl, 2010). Booth, A., & Amato, P. R. (2001). Parental predivorce relations and offspring postdivorce well-being.  Journal of Marriage & Family, 63 (1), 197; Hull, K. E., Meier, A., & Ortyl, T. (2010). The changing landscape of love and marriage.  Contexts, 9 (2), 32–37.
::然而,这些研究有时很难确定对子女的影响是来自离婚本身,还是来自导致离婚的家长冲突。 这个问题使得父母结束有问题的婚姻比父母继续结婚更可能使子女比父母结束有问题的婚姻好。 有关这个问题的证据一般反映了配偶刚才援引的证据:如果父母结束极具争议的婚姻,子女一般会更好,但如果父母结束没有高度争议的婚姻,子女会更糟(Booth & Amato, 2001;Hull, Meier, & Ortyl, 2010)。 Booth, A., & Amato, P.R. (2001)。 父母离婚前关系和离婚后后代的福祉。《婚姻和家庭杂志》,63(1), 197;Hull, K.E., Meier, A., & Ortyl, T. (2010)。 不断变化的爱情和婚姻景观。背景, 9(2), 32-37。

Remarriage
::再婚

People in a second marriage account for approximately 19.3 percent of all married persons, and those who have been married three or more times account for 5.2 percent (U.S. Census Bureau 2011). The vast majority (91 percent) of remarriages occur after divorce; only 9 percent occur after death of a spouse (Kreider 2006). Most men and women remarry within five years of a divorce, with the median length for men (three years) being lower than for women (4.4 years). This length of time has been fairly consistent since the 1950s. The majority of those who remarry are between the ages of 25 and 44 (Kreider 2006). The general pattern of remarriage also shows that whites are more likely to remarry than black Americans.
::第二次婚姻中的人约占所有已婚者的19.3%,结婚三次或三次以上的人占5.2%(美国2011年人口普查局),绝大多数(91%)再婚是在离婚后发生的;只有9%是在配偶死亡后发生的(Kreider,2006年),大多数男女在离婚后五年内再婚,男性的中位长度(3年)低于女性(4.4年),这一时间长度自1950年代以来一直相当一致,再婚者大多数年龄在25至44岁之间(Kreider,2006年)。再婚的一般模式也表明白人比黑人更有可能再婚。

Marriage the second time around (or third or fourth) can be a very different process than the first. Remarriage lacks many of the classic courtship rituals of a first marriage. In a second marriage, individuals are less likely to deal with issues like parental approval, premarital sex, or desired family size (Elliot 2010). In a survey of households formed by remarriage, a mere 8 percent included only biological children of the remarried couple. Of the 49 percent of homes that include children, 24 percent included only the woman’s biological children, 3 percent included only the man’s biological children, and 9 percent included a combination of both spouse’s children (U.S. Census Bureau 2006).
::第二次(或第三次或第四次)前后的婚姻可能是一个与第一次(第三次或第四次)截然不同的过程。再婚缺乏许多第一次婚姻的典型求偶仪式。在第二次婚姻中,个人不太可能处理父母批准、婚前性行为或理想家庭规模等问题(Elliot,2010年)。在对通过再婚形成的家庭进行的调查中,只有8%只包括再婚夫妇的亲生子女。 在49%包括子女的家庭中,24%只包括妇女的亲生子女,3%只包括男子的亲生子女,9%包括配偶双方的子女(美国人口普查局,2006年)。

Marriage and Well-Being
::婚姻和幸福

Is marriage good for people? This is the flip side of the question addressed earlier on whether divorce is bad for people. Are people better off if they get married in the first place? Or are they better off if they stay single?
::婚姻对人们有利吗?这是先前讨论的关于离婚是否对人民不利的问题的反面。人们结婚后会更好吗?还是单身会更好呢?

In 1972, sociologist Jessie Bernard (1972) Bernard, J. (1972).  The future of marriage . New York, NY: Bantam.  famously said that every marriage includes a “her marriage” and a “his marriage.” By this she meant that husbands and wives view and define their marriages differently. When spouses from the same marriage are interviewed, they disagree on such things as how often they should have sex, how often they actually do have sex, and who does various household tasks. Women do most of the housework and child care, while men are freer to work and do other things outside the home. Citing various studies, she said that marriage is better for men than for women. Married women, she said, have poorer mental health and other aspects of psychological well-being than unmarried women, while married men have better psychological well-being than unmarried men. In short, marriage was good for men but bad for women.
::1972年,社会学家Jessie Bernard(1972年)Bernard,J.Bernard,J.(1972年),《婚姻的未来》,纽约,纽约:Bantam。 著名地说,每桩婚姻都包括“她的婚姻”和“他的婚姻”。 她的意思是丈夫和妻子对婚姻的看法和定义不同。当同一起婚姻的配偶接受面谈时,他们对诸如她们应该如何发生性关系、她们实际上如何发生性关系和从事各种家务等事项有不同意见。妇女做大部分家务和照顾子女,而男子则更自由地在家庭外工作和做其他事情。她引用各种研究,她说婚姻对男子比妇女更好。她说,已婚妇女的心理健康和其他心理健康方面比未婚妇女差,而已婚男子比未婚男子的心理健康更好。简言之,婚姻对男子是好的,但对妇女是坏的。

Critics later said that Bernard misinterpreted her data on women and that married women are also better off than unmarried women (Glenn, 1997). Glenn, N. D. (1997). A critique of twenty family and marriage and the family textbooks.  Family Relations, 46 , 197–208.  Contemporary research generally finds that marriage does benefit both sexes: married people, women and men alike, are generally happier than unmarried people (whether never married, divorced, or widowed), score better on other measures of psychological well-being, are physically healthier, have better sex lives, and have lower death rates (Williams, 2003; Waite, Luo, & Lewin, 2009). Williams, K. (2003). Has the future of marriage arrived? A contemporary examination of gender, marriage, and psychological well-being.  Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 44 , 470–487; Waite, L. J., Luo, Y., & Lewin, A. C. (2009). Marital happiness and marital stability: Consequences for psychological well-being.  Social Science Research, 38 (1), 201–212.  There is even evidence that marriage helps keep men from committing crime (Laub, 2004). Laub, J. H. (2004). The life course of criminology in the United States: The American Society of Criminology 2003 presidential address.  Criminology, 42 , 1–26.  Marriage has these benefits for several reasons, including the emotional and practical support spouses give each other, their greater financial resources compared to those of unmarried people, and the sense of obligation that spouses have toward each other.
::批评者后来又说,伯纳德曲解了她关于女性的数据,已婚妇女也比未婚妇女更健康(Glenn, 1997年)。 Glenn, N.D. (1997年)。 批评了20个家庭和婚姻以及家庭教科书。 家庭关系, 46, 197-2088。 当代研究普遍认为,婚姻对男女两性都有利:已婚者、妇女和男子一般都比未婚者(不论从未结婚、离婚或丧偶者)更幸福,在其他心理健康措施方面得分更高,身体健康,性生活较好,死亡率较低(Williams, 2003年;Wate, Loo, & Lewin, A. C. (2009))。 婚姻幸福和婚姻稳定:心理健康的后果。 社会科学研究, 38(1), Willianms, K. (2003年)。 婚姻的未来? 对性别、婚姻和心理福祉的当代审查, 44, 470-487;Wate, L. J. J., L. J., L., Loo, Y., 和 Lewin, A. C. 2009年。 Marital yal yal yal 和婚姻稳定: Food-hestations revieward, the comcial decal ress, a exum, drium prium pours, exub.

Married people are generally happier than unmarried people and score higher on other measures of psychological well-being.
::一般而言,已婚者比未婚者更幸福,在其他心理健康措施方面得分更高。

  VIDEO Marriage Improves Heart Health
::VIDEO 婚姻改善心脏健康

  VIDEO  Health Benefits of Marriage

::VIDEO 婚姻健康福利

For further information on the benefits of marriage, the following article Married vs Single:  What Science Says is Better For Your Health  can be read    
::欲进一步了解婚姻的惠益,可阅读以下《已婚与单身:科学所说的对健康更好》一文。