生物学王国 -- -- 先进

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What's a kingdom?
::什么是王国?

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A kingdom could be used to describe a realm governed by one monarch. In biology , a kingdom is similar. It is the taxonomic level with higher ranking than most others. For example, all are in the same kingdom.
::一个王国可以用来描述一个君主统治的王国。在生物学上,一个王国相似。它比其他王国排名高。例如,它们都在同一王国中。

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The Kingdom
::王国王国

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Linnaeus established two kingdoms of organisms in his system: Plantae (the plant kingdom) and Animalia (the animal kingdom). Since then, scientists have repeatedly revised the Linnaean system. They have added several new kingdoms and sub- taxa . These changes were necessary as scientists learned more about the vast diversity of life on Earth.
::林内乌斯在其系统中建立了两个生物王国:普朗泰(植物王国)和动物王国(动物王国 ) 。 从那时起,科学家们反复修改林内恩体系。他们增加了几个新王国和亚税。 这些变化是必要的,因为科学家们更多地了解了地球上生命的巨大多样性。

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New Kingdoms
::新王国

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Between 1866 and 1977, a total of four new kingdoms were added to the original plant and animal kingdoms identified by Linnaeus. The new kingdoms include Protista (protists), , Monera (eubacteria), and (archaebacteria). Table  identifies the scientists who introduced the kingdoms and the dates the kingdoms were introduced. The table starts with the two-kingdom system introduced by Linnaeus in 1735.
::从1866年到1977年,在林奈乌斯确定的原始动植物王国中,共增加了四个新王国,包括普罗蒂斯塔(自然学家)、莫纳拉(自然学家)和大鼠(考古学家)等新王国,表格列出了引进这些王国的科学家和提出王国的日期,表格以林奈乌斯1735年引入的两王制开始。

Kingdoms in the Classification of Organisms

Number of Kingdoms	Two	Three	Four	Five	Six
Scientist	Linnaeus	Haeckel	Copeland	Whittaker	Woese
Date	1735	1866	1956	1969	1977
Names of Kingdoms	播放段落 Plantae ::平面 播放段落 Animalia ::动物动物	播放段落 Plantae ::平面 播放段落 Animalia ::动物动物 播放段落 Protista ::Protista	播放段落 Plantae ::平面 播放段落 Animalia ::动物动物 播放段落 Protista ::Protista 播放段落 Monera ::莫纳	播放段落 Plantae ::平面 播放段落 Animalia ::动物动物 播放段落 Protista ::Protista 播放段落 Fungi ::真菌 播放段落 Monera ::莫纳	播放段落 Plantae ::平面 播放段落 Animalia ::动物动物 播放段落 Protista ::Protista 播放段落 Fungi ::真菌 播放段落 Monera ::莫纳 播放段落 Archaea ::阿尔恰亚

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The Protist Kingdom
::普罗提斯特王国

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When Linnaeus created his taxonomy , microorganisms were almost unknown. As scientists began studying single-celled organisms under microscopes, they generally classified them as either plants or animals. For example, are single-celled organisms, some of which make their own food . They were classified as plants, which also made their own food. are single-celled organisms that can move on their own. They were classified as animals, which are organisms that have independent movement .
::当Linnaeus建立自己的分类学时,微生物几乎是未知的。随着科学家开始在显微镜下研究单细胞生物,他们一般将其归类为植物或动物,例如,单细胞生物,其中一些是自己的食物,它们被归类为植物,它们也是自己的食物。它们是单细胞生物,它们可以自己移动。它们被归类为动物,它们是独立运动的生物。

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As more single-celled organisms were identified, many didn’t seem to fit in either the plant or the animal kingdom. As a result, scientists could not agree on how to classify them. To address this problem, in 1866, biologist Ernst Haeckel created a third kingdom for all single-celled organisms. He called this kingdom Protista. The Figure  shows drawings that Haeckel made of several different types of as they looked under a . The drawings show some of the diversity of microorganisms.
::随着更多的单细胞生物被识别,许多人似乎并不适合植物或动物王国。 结果,科学家们无法就如何分类达成一致。 为了解决这个问题,1866年,生物学家Enst Haeckel为所有单细胞生物创建了第三个王国。 他称之为“普罗提斯塔王国 ” 。 该图显示了海克尔在他们眼皮下用几种不同种类的图画所制作的图画。 这些图画显示了微生物的多样性。

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The Bacteria Kingdom
::细菌王国

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Haeckel’s protist kingdom represented all known single-celled organisms, including both bacteria and protozoa. In the early 1900s, scientists discovered that bacterial are very different not only from plant and animal cells, but also from the cells of other protists, such as protozoa. The Figure  shows a bacterial cell, a protozoan cell, and an animal cell. When you compare the three cells, what differences do you see? The major difference is that, unlike the protozoan and animal cells, the bacterial cell does not contain a surrounded by a nuclear membrane. Instead, its is found in the cytoplasm of the cell. in the bacterial cell also lack surrounding membranes.
::Haeckel的原生体王国代表了所有已知的单细胞生物,包括细菌和原生动物。 1900年代初,科学家发现细菌不仅与植物和动物细胞非常不同,而且与其他原生动物细胞(如原生动物)非常不同。 图中显示了细菌细胞、原生动物细胞和动物细胞。当你比较这三个细胞时,你看到了什么区别?主要区别在于,与原生动物细胞和动物细胞不同,细菌细胞并不包含一个被核膜环绕的细胞。相反,细菌细胞的细胞细胞图层中也发现了细菌细胞。 在细菌细胞中,细菌细胞中也缺少细胞周围的细胞。

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In the 1920s, microbiologist Edouard Chatton gave bacteria the name . He defined prokaryotes as an organism whose cells lack nuclei. He gave the name eukaryotes to all other organisms. He defined eukaryote as an organism whose cells have nuclei (see the Cell Biology concepts). Chatton proposed placing prokaryotes and eukaryotes in a new taxon above the kingdom, called the superkingdom. However, this idea did not catch on, and most biologists continued to place bacteria in the protist kingdom.
::1920年代,微生物学家Edouard Chatton给细菌取了名字。他把prokaryotes定义为一个细胞缺乏核的有机体。他把eukaryotes命名为所有其他生物体。他把eukaryote定义为一个细胞有核的有机体(见细胞生物学概念 ) 。 Chatton提议将prokaryotes和eukaryotes置于王国之上的一个新分类库中,称为“超级王国 ” 。 然而,这一想法没有被接受,大多数生物学家继续把细菌置于原生国。

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Over the next several decades, scientists learned more about the tremendous number and diversity of bacteria. They started to see a need for a separate bacteria kingdom. By 1956, biologist Herbert Copeland proposed placing bacteria in a new kingdom called Monera. With the addition of the Monera kingdom, Linnaean taxonomy became a four-kingdom system (see Table  ).
::在未来几十年里,科学家们对细菌数量和多样性有了更多了解。 他们开始看到需要建立一个单独的细菌王国。 到1956年,生物学家赫伯特·科普兰(Herbert Copeland)提议将细菌置于一个名为莫内拉的新王国。 随着莫内拉王国的增加,林奈恩分类学成为了四代体系(见表 ) 。

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Bacteria are the most numerous organisms on Earth. In a single gram of soil , there are typically 40 million bacterial cells. The contains 10 times as many bacterial cells as human cells. Most of these bacteria are on the skin or in the digestive tract.
::细菌是地球上数量最多的生物体。 在一克土壤中, 通常有4000万细菌细胞。 这些细菌的细菌数量是人类细胞的10倍。 这些细菌大多在皮肤上或消化道上。

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The Fungi Kingdom
::王国

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In the late 1960s, ecologist Robert Whittaker proposed adding a fifth kingdom to Linnaean taxonomy to represent fungi. Fungi are eukaryote organisms such as mushrooms and molds. Up until then, fungi had been classified in the plant kingdom. Whittaker separated fungi from plants on the basis of differences in metabolism . Plants make their own food in the process of , whereas fungi obtain nutrients by breaking down dead organisms (see the Fungi concepts). Separating fungi from plants resulted in five kingdoms, which are illustrated in the Figure  . The five-kingdom system soon became widely accepted.
::1960年代后期,生态学家罗伯特·惠特克提议在林奈恩分类学中增加第五个王国,以代表真菌。真菌是如蘑菇和霉素这样的乳胶生物。在此之前,真菌一直被划入植物王国。惠特克根据新陈代谢的不同将真菌与植物分开。植物在进化过程中自食,而真菌则通过击碎死生物获得养分(见“真菌”概念)。植物分离真菌导致五个王国,如图所示。五国体系很快被广泛接受。

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Two Bacterial Kingdoms
::两个细菌王国

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By the 1970s, scientists had started to classify organisms in ways that reflected evolutionary relationships. They had also started using base sequences to identify these relationships (see concept Protists: Classification (Advanced) for more information). Nucleic acid sequence data are especially useful for studying bacteria. These organisms are so small that they have few physical traits.
::到1970年代,科学家们开始以反映进化关系的方式对生物进行分类,他们也开始使用基准序列来识别这些关系(见概念预言家:分类(高级)以获得更多信息 ) 。 核酸序列数据对细菌研究特别有用。 这些生物体太小,几乎没有物理特征。

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Studies of bacterial nucleic acid sequences have yielded some surprising results. For example, in their research on ribosomal RNA base sequences, American microbiologist Carl Woese (July 15, 1928 – December 30, 2012) and his colleagues discovered that bacteria actually include two very different groups of organisms. They called the two groups Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. Examples of organisms from each group are shown in the Figure  . Although the two types of organisms are similar in appearance, their ribosomal RNA sequences are very different. In 1977, Woese and his colleagues suggested that the original bacteria kingdom should be divided into two new kingdoms, called Eubacteria and Archaebacteria. This resulted in a six-kingdom taxonomy that has been widely accepted for many years.
::对细菌核酸序列的研究产生了一些令人惊讶的结果。 比如,美国微生物学家Carl Wouse(1928年7月15日至2012年12月30日)及其同事在对核糖核酸基序列的研究中发现细菌实际上包括两种截然不同的有机体。它们称为Eubacteria和Archabecteria两个组。图中显示了两种生物组的有机体实例。尽管这两种生物的外观相似,但它们的核糖核酸基序列却大不相同。 1977年,Woese及其同事建议将原细菌王国分为两个新王国,即Eubacteria和Archebactiteria。 这导致了多年来被广泛接受的六KM分类。

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Hemimastigotes: A New Kingdom? 
::新王国?

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In late 2018, Canadian researchers reported on what could be a novel kingdom of life. Hemimastigotes, an eukaryotic microscopic organism, do not fit into any known kingdoms of life. 
::2018年后期,加拿大研究人员报告了新生命王国的情况。 Hemimatistigotes,一种水晶微生物体,不适合任何已知的生命王国。

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These eukaryotic organisms have numerous flagella , but seem to move in a random fashion, unlike the coordinated fashion of other microscopic organisms with many flagella. Genetic analysis confirmed a  greater difference to other organisms than that seen between and . The authors estimate the common ancestor between these  organisms and another  other known living organisms lived over one billion years ago,  about 500 million years before the first . See the link below for additional information.
::基因分析证实,与其他生物相比,与其他生物相比,遗传分析证实与其他生物的差别更大。作者估计,这些生物与其他已知生物体在10亿多年前(大约比第一个生物体早5亿年)生活的共同祖先。更多信息见下文链接。

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Summary
::摘要

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• By 1977, four new kingdoms had been added to the plant and animal kingdoms of the original Linnaean taxonomy: Protista, Fungi, Eubacteria, and Archaebacteria.
  ::到1977年,在原林奈人分类学的植物和动物王国中增加了四个新王国:Protista、Fungi、Eubacteria和Archaebacteria。

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Review
::回顾

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1. Name four new kingdoms that were added to the original Linnaean taxonomy.
   ::列出四个新王国,这些王国被加入原始林内亚分类系统。
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2. How do prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ? Describe differences at the cellular level.
   ::prokaryoytes和eukaryotes是如何区别的? 描述细胞层面的差异 。
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3. Why were fungi placed in a separate kingdom from plants?
   ::为什么真菌被安置在一个与植物分开的王国?