章节大纲

  • lesson content

    What type of is this?
    ::这是什么类型的?

    Obviously a . But what type of mold? There are thousands of known of molds. How are they classified?
    ::显然是的,但是哪种模具?

    Classification of Fungi
    ::菌类分类

    For a long time, taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the Plantae. This early was based mainly on similarities in their lifestyles. Both fungi and plants do not move about, they look a little similar, and they grow in similar places. For example, fungi often grow in soil and, in the case of mushrooms , form fruiting bodies, which may look like plants such as mosses .
    ::长期以来,分类学家认为真菌是普朗泰(Plantae)的成员。 早期的菌类主要基于其生活方式的相似性。 真菌和植物都不移动,它们看起来都有点相似,它们生长在类似的地方。 比如,真菌经常在土壤中生长,在蘑菇中,它们形成果实体,可能看起来像植物,比如藻类。

    Both plants and fungi have cell walls , while members of the Kingdom do not have cell walls. However, the fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals. Many studies have identified several distinct morphological, biochemical, and genetic features in fungi that clearly distinguish them from the other kingdoms. For these reasons, fungi are placed in their own kingdom, separate from plants, as shown in the and Six Kingdom Classifications Table.
    ::植物和真菌都有细胞墙,而沙特王国成员没有细胞墙,然而,真菌现在被视为一个与植物和动物不同的单独王国,许多研究已经确定了真菌中与其它王国有明显区别的几种不同的形态、生化和遗传特征,因此,如《王国分类表》和《六国分类表》所示,真菌被安置在自己的王国中,与植物分开。

    Domain and Six Kingdom Classifications
      Bacteria Archaea Protists Fungi Plants Animals
    Domain Eukarya Eukarya Eukarya Eukarya
    Kingdom Eubacteria Archaebacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia
    lesson content
    Moss (Plant) and Lichen Growing on Tree Bark. Both fungi and moss are growing on this tree. Can you tell them apart?

    Classification is an ongoing area of research and discussion, especially for fungi. As new findings and technologies become available, scientists get a better idea of how fungi are related to each other and to other organisms . For example, molecular analysis allows for the comparison of the genomes of different groups of organisms; this can be used to identify the evolutionary relationships between organisms.
    ::随着新的发现和技术的出现,科学家能够更好地了解真菌与其它生物的关系,例如分子分析可以比较不同生物组的基因组;这可用于确定生物体之间的进化关系。

    Physiological and Morphological Traits
    ::生理和生理病理

    The taxonomy of fungi is in a state of constant change, especially due to recent research based on comparisons. These current phylogenetic classifications often overturn previous classifications that were based on physical features and the biological species concept.
    ::菌类分类学处于不断变化的状态,特别是由于最近基于比较的研究,目前这些植物遗传学分类往往推翻了以前基于物理特征和生物物种概念的分类。

    There is no single, generally accepted system for fungal classification. There are constant name changes at every taxonomic level. However, fungal researchers are now working to establish a more consistent naming system, or nomenclature. Fungal species can also have multiple scientific names, depending on their and mode (sexual or asexual) of . To learn more about classification methods, refer to the Classification concepts.
    ::没有单一的、普遍接受的真菌分类制度,每个分类层次都不断改变名称,然而,真菌研究人员目前正在努力建立一个更加一致的命名制度或命名法,同鸟物种也可以有多种科学名称,取决于它们和方式(性或非性)。要更多地了解分类方法,请参考分类概念。

    Unlike many plants, most fungi do not have a vascular system, such as xylem or phloem , for long-distance transport of and nutrients . Some fungi, such as the honey fungus ( genus Armillaria ), form growths called mycelial cords (shown in  Figure  ) that look like and work in a similar way to plant . Mycelial cords are also called rhizomorphs ("root-forms").
    ::与许多植物不同,大部分真菌没有长距离迁移和养分的血管系统,如Xylem或phloem。 某些真菌,如蜂蜜真菌(genus Armillaria),成形生长,叫做近视线(图中显示),长似植物,工作方式与植物相似。 微缩线也被称为形(“根形 ” )。

    Mycelial cords of the honey fungus. Mycelial cords are large groups of hyphae that lie parallel to each other. The mature cords are made of wide, empty vessel hyphae surrounded by narrower sheathing hyphae. They can look very similar to roots, but they are not roots.
    Mycelial cords of the honey fungus. Mycelial cords are large groups of hyphae that lie parallel to each other. The mature cords are made of wide, empty vessel hyphae surrounded by narrower sheathing hyphae. They can look very similar to roots, but they are not roots.

    A characteristic shared between plants and fungi is the presence of vacuoles in their . Traits shared among members of the kingdom Fungi include cell walls that contain chitin and heterotrophy by absorption . Similar to plants, fungi produce a number of secondary metabolites that work in defending against .
    ::植物和真菌之间的一个共同特征是植物和真菌中存在真空。真菌王国成员之间共有的轨迹包括细胞壁,内含基锡和吸收的异氧化。像植物一样,真菌产生一些次生代谢物,用来防患于未然。

    The major divisions (phyla) of fungi have been classified based mainly on their sexual reproductive structures. Currently, seven fungal divisions are proposed, but we will discuss only four of them in detail: the phyla , Basidiomycota , , and Chytridiomycota, which are listed in the Classifications of Fungi Table. Three of these phyla, Zygomycota, Ascomycota, and Basidiomycota, are some of the more commonly known and best understood phyla; Chytridiomycota are the most ancient fungi known.
    ::菌类的主要部位(植物)主要基于其性生殖结构进行了分类,目前提出了7个真菌部位,但我们只详细讨论其中4个:素类、Basidiomycota和Chytridiomycota,它们列在《真菌分类表》中。其中3个是素类、Zygomycota、Ascomycota和Basidiomycota,它们都是最广为人知和最能理解的植物;科特里迪奥科塔是最古老的真菌。

    1. The Blastocladiomycota are commonly known as blastocladiomycetes. They are fungi that are saprotrophs and are parasites of all eukaryotic groups. They undergo in their spores unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, which mostly undergo meiosis of zygotes .
      ::Blastocladiomycota通常被称为Dombocladiomicétes,它们是真菌,是所有雌雄激素组的生化和寄生虫。 它们与它们的近亲,即主要经历间歇性结扎的螺旋菌不同,在它们的螺旋体中经历。
    2. The Neocallimastigomycota are commonly known as neocallimastigomycetes. They are anaerobic fungi that live in the of large herbivorous mammals . They do not have , instead they have called hydrogenosomes that produce ATP . Similar to chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that have a single or many flagella .
      ::Neocallimastigomycota通常被称为新卡利马斯蒂戈米斯氏菌。它们是生活在大型食草动物哺乳动物体内的厌氧真菌。它们没有,相反,它们被称为产生ATP的氢气。与染色体类似,新卡利马斯蒂戈密斯氏菌形成动物食动物动物动物,它们有单一或多种旗状动物。
    3. Members of the Glomeromycota are fungi that form mycorrhizae with higher plants. Only one species has been observed forming zygospores; all other species solely reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating back to 400 million years ago.
      ::Glomeromycota的成员是真菌,它们与较高植物形成细菌,只有一种物种被观察到形成zygospores;所有其他物种都是无性繁殖的。 Glomeromycota与植物之间的共生联系是古老的,证据可追溯到4亿年前。
    4. The Zygomycota reproduce sexually with spores called zygospores and asexually with sporangiospores. Black bread mold ( Rhizopus stolonifer ) is a common species that belongs to this group. Members of this phyla that can cause disease and food spoilage include Mucor, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus.
      ::Zygomycota与叫作zygospores的螺旋菌发生性关系,与porangiospores发生性关系。黑面包霉菌(Rhizopus stolonifer)是属于这一群体的常见物种。 这种可造成疾病和食物变质的植物成员包括Mucor、Rhizomucor和Rhizopus。
    5. Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as club fungi, produce spores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust and smut fungi, which are major of grains. Other important Basidiomyces include the maize pathogen, Ustilago maydis and commensal species of the genus Malassezia.
      ::巴西迪奥米科塔(Basidiomycota)的成员通常被称为真菌俱乐部,他们生产着被称为“巴西迪亚”的俱乐部类尾巴的螺旋菌,大多数常见蘑菇属于这一群体,还有生锈和粘土真菌,它们是主要谷物。 其他重要的巴西迪奥米科塔(Basidiomycota)成员包括玉米病原体、乌斯蒂拉戈黑豆和马拉西西亚人种的同源物种。
    6. The Ascomycota are commonly known as sac fungi. These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. This division includes morels, a few mushrooms, truffles, single-celled yeasts, and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts. Important genera of filamentous Ascomycetes include Aspergillus and Penicillium, which are used in food production, and Claviceps, a parasite of cereal crops. Many Ascomycetes species have only been observed undergoing .
      ::Ascomycota通常被称为sac真菌。这些真菌构成称为食肉动物的食谱动物,它们被封闭在一种特殊的食肉动物结构中,称为“ ” ( ascus ) 。这个分类包括更多的菌类、一些蘑菇、松露、单细胞酵母和许多丝状的真菌,它们作为产卵、寄生虫和共性共生菌而生存。 丝状动物的重要基因包括用于粮食生产的Aspergilus和Penicitrium,以及谷类作物的寄生虫Clavicles。许多亚斯康氏物种只是被观察到了。
    7. The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi are found worldwide. Chytrids produce zoospores that are able to move through aqueous environments with a single flagellum. They had once been classified as on the basis of their flagellum.
      ::这些真菌遍布世界各地,它们产出动物园,它们能够以单一的状在水环境中移动。它们曾经被归类为根据其状。
    Classification of Fungi
    Division Characteristics Examples

    Phylum Zygomycota
    ::祖戈米科塔

    		Formation of diploid zygospores. Asexual spores form on sporangia . Black bread mold ( Rhizopus stolonifera ).

    Phylum Basidiomycota
    ::苯丙胺菌

    		Fruiting body called basidiocarp. Sexual spores in basidia. Hyphae divided by septa . mushrooms, stinkhorns, earthballs, puffballs.

    Phylum Ascomycota
    ::吉卜赛人Ascomycota

    		Fruiting body called ascocarp. Sexual spores in asci. Hyphae divided by septa. Dikaryons. Neurospora , yeasts, morels, and truffles.
    Phylum Chytridiomycota The only fungus. They have flagella and are the oldest known fungal phylum. Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (causes a highly contagious skin disease in amphibians).
    Class Deuteromycota Sexual cycle unknown, asexual reproduction only. Aspergillus , Penicillium.

    Phylum Chytridiomycota
    ::夏洛姆子体细胞科

    Living chytrids are mostly aquatic. They live in fresh water, waters, and on land. Their name refers to the chytridium (from the Greek word chytridion, meaning "little pot"), the structure containing unreleased spores. Chytrids also have flagellated gametes ; no other fungi have flagellated cells. Chytrids secret that can break down cellulose , chitin, and keratin , which makes them important decomposers . However, they can also be parasitic.
    ::活性虫大多是水生的,它们生活在淡水、水和陆地上。它们的名字指的是(希腊语的,意思是“小锅 ” ) , 即含有未释放的螺旋体的结构。 也含有挂状的网球; 没有其他的真菌有挂状的细胞。 的秘密可以打破纤维素、 Chitin 和 keratin , 这使得它们成为重要的分解体。 但是,它们也可以是寄生虫。

    Recently, a chytrid species, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, was discovered to cause a serious and highly contagious disease in . This fungus, shown in  Figure  , is considered to be one of the main reasons for the decline in worldwide amphibian . The disease caused by chytrids is called Chytridiomycosis.
    ::最近,发现一种突变物种,即Batrachochytrium dendrobadidis,导致严重和高度传染性疾病。图中显示的这种真菌被认为是全世界两栖病减少的主要原因之一。 突变引起的疾病被称为子系疾病。

    The oldest fungi identified are chytrids. Studying the living chytrids can help scientists understand how fungi have evolved.
    ::最古老的真菌被识别为虫。研究活的虫可以帮助科学家了解真菌是如何进化的。

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    A section of skin from a frog that is infected with the Batrachochytrium chytrid. The uppermost layer of epidermis contains numerous intracellular spherical-to-ovoid sporangia of Batrachochytrium. Each flask-shaped sporangium has a single characteristic discharge tube (arrow) at the skin surface. Exiting zoospores are visible in the discharge tubes of both sporangia. The scale bar represents 35 µm.

    Class Deuteromycota
    ::离子体( suteromycota) 类

    The Deuteromycota (from the Greek term for "second fungi") were once considered a phylum of the kingdom Fungi. The term is now only used informally to identify species of fungi from the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, for which only asexual reproduction has been observed.
    ::德乌特罗密科塔(希腊语“第二真菌 ” (second comgi ) ) 曾经被认为是“真菌”王国的植物。 如今,该词仅被非正式地用于识别来自植物类阿斯科米科塔和巴希迪奥米科塔的真菌物种,而对于这些物种,只观察到了性生殖。

    Other names for the Deuteromycota are "fungi imperfecti" and "Deuteromycetes." The classification of fungi is partially based on the morphology of sexual reproductive structures, but because the sexual form of reproduction has never been observed in Deuteromycetes, they have been called "imperfect fungi." Only their asexual form of reproduction is known. Members of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium are classified as Deuteromycetes. The sporangium of an Aspergillus fungus is shown in  Figure  .
    ::直肠杆菌的其他名称是“fungi perterimi”和“deutteromycetes ” 。真菌的分类部分基于性生殖结构的形态学,但由于在直肠杆菌中从未观察到生殖的性形式,它们被称为“不完美的真菌 ” 。只有他们的性生殖形式才为人所知。基因Aspergillus和Penicitrium的成员被归类为脱子宫。Aspergillus真菌的副作用在图中显示了。

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    An electron micrograph picture of asexual structures of Aspergillus fumigates. Only asexual reproduction has been observed in the Deuteromycetes. Scientists have determined that these fungi likely reproduce only asexually.

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • The early classification of Fungi was based mainly on how they look and their similar lifestyles to plants. Both fungi and plants do not move about, they grow in similar places, and both plants and fungi have cell walls.
      ::蘑菇的早期分类主要基于它们的外观和与植物相似的生活方式。 真菌和植物都不移动,它们生长在类似的地方,植物和真菌都有细胞壁。
    • All fungi are heterotrophic, none of them photosynthesize. They have chitin in their cell walls, unlike plants which have cellulose.
      ::所有的真菌都是血清营养学,没有一个是光合作用。它们的细胞墙壁里都有香肠, 不像有纤维素的植物。
    • There are seven phyla in Kingdom Fungi, mostly classified by their form of sexual reproduction.
      ::苍蝇王国有七只植物,大多按性生殖形式分类。
    • The Zygomycota reproduce sexually with spores called zygospores and asexually with sporangiospores. Basidiomycetes produce spores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Ascomycetes form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus.
      ::Zygomycota与叫作zygospores的螺旋菌发生性关系,与porangiospores发生性关系。Basidiomistes生产叫basidiospores的螺旋菌,在叫作basidia的俱乐部类尾巴上出现。Ascomytes形成称为ocospores的 meic Sunors,它们被困在一个叫做ascus的特殊的Sac类结构中。
    • Members of the phylum Chytridiomycota were probably one of the first fungi.
      ::植物遗传科的植物成员 可能是第一种真菌之一
    • The term Deuteromycetes is reserved for fungi that only reproduce asexually.
      ::直肠菌是留给只进行性繁殖的真菌的

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. Why were fungi once classified as plants?
      ::为什么真菌曾经被归类为植物?
    2. How do the cell walls of fungi and the cell walls of plants differ?
      ::真菌的细胞墙和植物的细胞墙有何不同?
    3. What characteristics are used to separate fungi into different groups?
      ::用什么特征将真菌分为不同的组别?
    4. Which group of fungi has the oldest known fossils?
      ::哪组真菌有最古老的化石?
    5. Why were some fungi known as "imperfect fungi?"
      ::为什么有些真菌被称为"不完美的真菌"?

    Explore More
    ::探索更多