章节大纲

  • Foreword for Teachers

    I. Invention as an Approach to Teaching Writing
    ::一. 发明作为教学写作的一种方法

    For many decades students were expected to make an outline with an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. Although they were not sure what they wanted to say, they made the outline and wrote the essay to fit it. Sometimes reversing the process, they wrote the paper and then made an outline from the finished product. After marking the essays for correctness in spelling, mechanics, grammar, thesis, development, and organization, teachers returned papers to students who, in turn, stuffed them in notebooks or book bags. However, during the last twenty years, writing instructors have updated their pedagogy by focusing less on the composed product and more on the composing process.
    ::数十年来,人们一直期望学生用介绍、身体和结论来做一个提纲,尽管他们不确定自己想说什么,但他们做了提纲并写了作文。有时,他们颠倒了这个过程,他们写了纸,然后从成品中做了提纲。在为拼写、机械、语法、论文、发展和组织等方面的正确性作记号之后,教师将论文还给那些反过来用笔记本或书包塞进纸里的学生。然而,在过去二十年中,写作教员更新了他们的教学方法,减少了对成品的关注,而更多地关注编成过程。

    In the on-going teaching of writing, some English teachers work from the whole to the part. They start with the whole paper by teaching outlining, organization, thesis, purpose, introduction, body, and conclusion. Then, as the semester goes on, they move into the smaller parts such as sentence structure, diction, and grammar. James L. Kinneavy found “much evidence that beginning with the whole and moving only incidentally to the parts (mechanical skills of punctuation, spelling, sentence skills, paragraph skills) does not seem to be entirely successful” (1). Other teachers prefer to work from the part to the whole, starting with perhaps a grammar unit before teaching the whole paper even though seventy years of research “demonstrate overwhelmingly that the isolated teaching of grammatical skills has little or no transfer to use in actual composition” (1). Essays are assigned and graded, while teaching focuses on general rules either starting with the whole and moving to the parts or vice versa. The connection between the teaching and the writing is not emphasized.
    ::在进行中的写作教学中,一些英语教师从整体到整体工作,从整份文件开始,先是编写大纲、组织、论文、目的、介绍、身体和结论。然后,随着学期的继续,他们进入了句式结构、字典和语法等较小的部分。 James L. Kinneavy发现,“大量证据表明,从整体开始,只是偶然地移动到部分(标语、拼写、句号技能、段落技能的机械技能)似乎并不完全成功” (1) 其他教师倾向于从整体开始工作,也许从整个文件之前的语法单元开始,尽管70年的研究“绝大多数表明,孤立的语法技能教学几乎没有或根本没有实际成份的转移” (1) 教法和分级,而教学侧重于一般规则,要么从整体开始,要么转移到部分,要么转到部分,反之。教学和写作之间的联系没有受到强调。

    Whether a teacher starts with whole concept of composition and works to the parts (paragraph development, sentence structure, grammar, and punctuation) or reverses the procedure, the end result is the same: more time is spend evaluating the finished product than working through prewriting, drafting, and revising. Teaching and grading are both analytical skills; the student, though, is trying to learn generative skills. The proportion of class time and teacher time spent on the various stages might look something like this:
    ::教师是从整个构成概念开始,工作到各个部分(段落开发、句式结构、语法和标点),还是颠倒程序,最终结果是相同的:评价成品的时间比编写、起草和修订的时间要长。 教学和分级都是分析技能;但学生正在尝试学习基因技能。 班级时间和教师在各个阶段所花时间的比例可能是这样的:

    lesson content

    The heavy emphasis on grading not only inhibits the writing process but it also distances the student from the teacher because the final step requiring the biggest chunk of time does not involve the student. Because the valuable interchange of ideas does not occur, the student’s composing process is an isolated experience. Student involvement with his writing is minimized because he has little of himself invested in his work. He is writing to please his instructors and to get a grade for correctness.
    ::对分级的强调不仅抑制了写作过程,也使学生与教师相距甚远,因为要求时间最多的最后一步并不涉及学生。 由于没有发生有价值的思想交流,学生的创作过程是一种孤立的经历。 学生参与写作的程度最小化,因为他对自己的工作投入很少。 他写作是为了取悦教师,并为了正确起见获得一个分数。

    Instructors have finally begun to realize that teaching occurs during prewriting, drafting, and revising, and the most effective test is the student’s own evolving manuscript. Teaching occurs effectively at any but the last step because grading is not teaching. When the student reaches the evaluation stage, the teacher serves as a judge. The real work has already been done during the stages of training and refining the presentation. Over the past two decades, the proportion of class time and teacher time spent on composition has gradually been inverted to look like this:
    ::教师们终于开始意识到,教学发生在预写、起草和修订过程中,最有效的测试是学生自己不断演变的手稿。 教学在任何步骤中都是有效的,但最后一步是因为叙级不是教学。 当学生到达评估阶段时,教师担任法官。 真正的工作已经在培训和改进授课阶段完成。 在过去20年中,班级时间和教师在组成上的时间比例逐渐被颠倒为这样:

    lesson content

    Instead of the whole to part or the part to whole, teachers are now concentrating on the writing process and spending much less attention and time on the product. Consequently, students are using the early stages of writing to list their ideas: that is, they write down all the words or phrases that come to mind about their topic. Using some of those ideas, they put together a draft of their essays, confer with the teacher and/or fellow students, and revise their papers--sometimes repeating this process several times before the final product reaches the instructor for grading.
    ::因此,学生们正在利用早期写作阶段来列举他们的想法:也就是说,他们写下所有关于他们主题的文字或短语;他们利用其中的一些想法,编集了他们的论文草稿,与教师和/或同学进行了交谈,并修改了他们的文件-有时重复这一过程,然后最后产品才到达评分教员处。

    The inverted triangle shifts the emphasis from product to process because the biggest chunk of time is allotted to the most significant step, prewriting. Students cannot go astray as they collect the right ingredients for a paper and decide what to make. In the next step, organizing, students need a crutch; they have to find a recipe that will help them arrange ideas. Simply listing ideas (ingredients) does not guarantee a successful paper because students must be able to select, add, and delete. Students need to identify what ingredients are required and have a plan for combining them. A new writer needs specific directions that a recipe can provide; if he follows those directions, he will make something that is satisfying. Having a specific set of cooking instructions becomes a life line for poor writers, a benefit to average writers, and an option for the good writers. Any recipe “that cannot be practiced by teachers, writers, or students and that does not produce increasingly effective drafts of writing must be reconsidered” (Murray 12).
    ::反向三角形将重点从产品转向加工,因为最大部分的时间被分配到最重要的步骤,即写作。学生们不会在收集纸张的正确成分和决定要做什么的时候误入歧途。 在下一步,组织起来,学生们需要拐杖;他们必须找到有助于他们安排想法的食谱。简单地列出想法(内容)并不能保证成功,因为学生们必须能够选择、添加和删除。学生们需要确定需要哪些成分,并有一个组合它们的计划。新作家需要一种食谱可以提供的具体方向;如果他遵循这些方向,他就会做出一些满足的东西。有一套具体的烹饪指令成为贫穷作家的生活线,给普通作家带来好处,并为优秀作家提供一种选择。任何“教师、作家或学生无法实践的,而且不会产生越来越有效的写作草稿的食谱”都必须重新考虑(Murray 12)。

    Twenty five ago while teaching in an American college in Glyfada (Athens), Greece, I developed a recipe that could be practiced by teachers and students and that did produce more effective drafts. This formula approach, the Glyfada Method, took the fear out of writing in an English class, giving the students both a psychological advantage and an intellectual aid. It seems to conflict with many experts of contemporary research such as James Moffett who believes formula writing kills creativity. For some students and teachers the idea of writing with a recipe is distasteful and restraining. However, one student’s restraints are another’s life lines. The Glyfada Method takes students through twelve mandatory, but flexible steps that touch on each phase of the writing process. Those steps include a listing of ideas, a statement thesis with main points, an outline with support, and required transitions and key words in each paragraph. It is neither whole to parts nor parts to whole; both of these approaches emphasize product and analysis. Instead, the Glyfada Method is a process. Writing the natural way, students accept responsibility for gathering the ingredients for their papers and following a recipe for the sequence of combining.
    ::25年前,在希腊Glyfada(雅典)的一个美国学院教学时,我开发了一种可以由教师和学生实践的配方,而且它确实产生了更有效的草稿。 这种公式方法,即Glyfada方法,在英语课上从写作的恐惧中消除了恐惧,给学生带来了心理上的优势和智力上的帮助。这似乎与许多当代研究专家相冲突,如詹姆斯·莫菲特(James Moffett认为写作公式会扼杀创造性。对于一些学生和教师来说,用配方写作的想法是令人不愉快的和限制的。然而,一个学生的束缚是另一个生命线。Glyfada方法通过12个强制性但灵活的步骤,触及写作过程的每个阶段。这些步骤包括:列举想法,一个带有要点的声明,一个有支持的大纲,以及每个段落中要求的转变和关键词。它既不是部分也不是整体的;这两种方法都强调产品和分析。相反,Glyfada方法是一个过程。写自然方式,学生接受收集其论文材料的责任,也遵循合并顺序的食谱。

    The Glyfada Method frees the student of the cognitive overload of dealing with structure, content, diction, spelling, and punctuation all at once, thus reducing “writer’s performance anxiety” (Flowers 44). As Pirsig suggests, when a student does not have to face all his problems at once, the writing process becomes less overwhelming. In  Zen And the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance , when Chris has trouble starting a letter to his mother, his father gives him the following advice about writing:
    ::Glyfada方法让学生能够同时摆脱处理结构、内容、字典、拼写和标点时的认知超载,从而减少了“作家的工作焦虑 ” ( Flowers 44 ) 。 正如Pirsig所言,当学生不必同时面对所有问题时,写作过程就变得不那么过分了。 在Zen和摩托车维修艺术中,当Chris开始写信给他母亲时,他父亲给他写作建议如下:

    I tell him getting stuck is the commonest trouble of all. Usually, I say, your mind gets stuck when you’re trying to do too many things at once. What you have to do is try not to force words to come. That just gets you more stuck. What you have to do now is separate out the things and do them one at a time. You’re trying to think of what to say and what to say first at the same time and that’s too hard. So separate them out. Just make a list of all the things you want to say in any old order. Then later we’ll figure out the right order. (Pirsig 271)
    ::我告诉他被卡住是最常见的麻烦。 通常,我说,当你试图同时做太多事情时,你的头脑就会卡住。 你要做的是尽量不要强迫言词的到来。 这只会使你更加卡住。 你现在要做的是把事情分开,一次做一次。 你试图想先说什么,同时说什么,这太难了。 所以把它们分开。 只需列出所有你想在任何旧的顺序下说的话的清单。 然后我们再想出正确的顺序。 (Pirsig 271)

    The Glyfada Method is a recipe to “separate out the things and do them one at a time.” It is a way to “make a list of all the things a writer wants to say in any old order.” Then, later he can “figure out the right order.” A student is able to concentrate on discovering ideas and organizing them before he has to worry about sentence structure, grammar, or spelling. Linda S. Flowers and John R. Hayes state
    ::Glyfada方法是一种“把事情分开,一次一次做一次”的秘诀。 它是一种“用任何旧的顺序将作家想要说的所有事情编成一个清单 ” 的方法。 然后,他可以“找出正确的秩序 ” 。 学生可以在担心判决结构、语法或拼写之前集中精力发现思想并组织思想。 琳达·S·花和约翰·R·海耶斯指出,

    ...the act of writing is best described as the act of juggling a number of simultaneous constraints (31). [They] suggest that one of the most effective strategies for handling this large number of constraints is Planning. Plans allow writers to reduce ‘cognitive strain,’ that is, to reduce the number of demands being made on conscious attention. (31-32)
    ::.写作行为最好被描述为兼并若干同时约束行为(31)。 [他们]认为,处理这些众多制约的最有效战略之一是规划。 计划允许作家减少 " 认知压力 " ,即减少对意识关注的需求数量(31-32)。 (31-32)

    The recipe approach will not solve the problems of awkward sentence structure, poor grammar, misspelled words, and incorrect punctuation. However, if a writer feels more secure with his organization and unity, he can afford to spend time working on other elements of writing.
    ::食谱方法不会解决难堪的刑期结构、语法差、拼法错误和不正确的标点等问题。 但是,如果一个作家觉得自己的组织和团结更安全,他可以花时间写作其他内容。

    Writing instructors, especially new teachers or student teachers, find that the Glyfada Method gives them confidence to teach writing. Because new teachers have not established their teaching methods and philosophies, they welcome a technique that is already set up with guidelines for success. For both new writers and new teachers, the method is similar to learning to ride a bike with training wheels. When they begin to fall, the training wheels support them and keep them steady. And, when these writers and teachers are fully confident, they can remove the training wheels and follow what works best for them.
    ::写作教员,特别是新教师或学生教师,发现Glyfada方法赋予他们教授写作的信心。由于新教师尚未建立教学方法和哲学,他们欢迎已经设置的成功指南的技术。对于新作家和新教师来说,这种方法类似于学会骑骑骑有培训轮子的自行车。当他们开始下降时,培训轮子支持他们并保持他们稳定。当这些作家和教师完全有信心时,他们可以卸下培训轮子并跟随对他们最有用的东西。

    Composition instructors want to present a plan to follow so that inexperienced writers can build their confidence. If students have a system for getting a topic, discovering ideas for it, and putting the material into an adequate form, they can be confident they will have an essay. However, if writers have no technique for getting started, they may either ramble until they get the required length, or they may not even do the assignment. The Glyfada Method will not solve all of the writing woes of teachers and students. It does not profess to increase creativity and enthusiasm among writing students. However, it will lessen some of the more frustrating problems that occur during each writing session, and students will eventually gain confidence and become coherent writers. As long as students know they have less of a chance of failing, they begin to take risks in writing. To use an analogy, although this recipe (the Glyfada Method) will not make them great chefs, they will learn how to be good cooks. The menus may not be elaborate, but they will satisfy the guests.
    ::设计师希望提出一个计划,让没有经验的作家能够建立信心。 如果学生拥有一个研究课题、发现想法和将材料以适当形式化的系统,他们可以有信心地获得一篇论文。然而,如果作家没有开始研究的技术,他们可以漫步,直到他们达到要求的长度,或者他们甚至不能完成这项任务。Glyfada方法不会解决教师和学生的所有写作困难。它并不声称提高写作学生的创造力和热情。然而,它会减少在每次写作过程中出现的更令人沮丧的问题,学生最终会获得信心并成为连贯的作家。只要学生知道他们没有失败的机会,他们就会开始冒写作风险。为了比喻,尽管这种配方(Glyfada方法)不会使他们成为伟大的厨师,但他们会学会如何做好的厨艺。菜单可能不精细,但是他们会满足客人的需要。

    In developing this method during the last twenty-five years, I have formulated the following tenets:
    ::在过去二十五年中,在制订这一方法的过程中,我制定了以下原则:

    1. Putting the writing process into an easy-to-follow method helps students produce better essays.
      ::将写作过程变成一种简单易懂的方法, 帮助学生制作更好的作文。
    2. Each stage in the writing process contributes to a unified whole.
      ::编写过程的每个阶段都有助于形成一个统一的整体。
    3. A writer must inventory and crystallize his main points.
      ::作者必须清点和明确他的要点。
    4. The writing procedure can be adjusted to fit different types of discourse: expressive, persuasive, referential, or literary.
      ::可以调整书面程序,以适应不同类型的言论:表达、说服、优待或文学。
    5. Students who have a method are less likely to write their papers the night before or to borrow a roommate’s old composition.
      ::拥有某种方法的学生更不可能在前一天晚上写论文或借用室友的旧成份。
    6. If writers have a checklist to use on their papers before turning them in, they will probably spot trouble areas in advance.
      ::如果作家在上报前有一份核对表,
    7. Students who use this method are better peer editors.
      ::使用这种方法的学生是更好的同侪编辑。
    8. Students are better readers because the method becomes a conscious step that will, with practice, become part of them. “If he cannot abstract a thesis from what he reads, it’s not likely that he will have much success in formulating his own thesis sentence” (Corbett 49).
      ::学生们是更好的读者,因为这个方法会成为一个自觉的步骤,随着实践的实践,会成为他们的一部分。 “如果他不能从他所读的书中总结出一个理论,那么他不可能在拟定自己的理论句方面取得很大成功。” (Corbett 49 ) 。

    Whatever teaching method is used, it “should provide guidance  during the process  if students are to acquire the art of writing” (Lauer 54). If real learning is to take place during the writing process, the instructor must not place the emphasis on product and analysis. However, when writers spend the bulk of their time on the writing process, they are learning as they are composing.
    ::无论使用何种教学方法,“如果学生要获得写作艺术,教学方法应在学习过程中提供指导”(Lauer 54)。如果在写作过程中要进行真正的学习,教员不得强调产品和分析,然而,当作家将大部分时间花在写作过程中时,他们正在学习,因为他们正在形成。

    Other methods work as well, but this recipe presents another option for those teachers and students who find it compatible to their philosophies. It should  not  be used in the classroom to the exclusion of other activities such as free writes, journal entries, and creative writing. The key to the Glyfada Method lies in giving both teacher and students a recipe that will take them through the writing process. By reducing the “cognitive strain,” that is, the necessity of juggling all aspects of the composing process, and focusing on one or two important aspects of writing at a time, the teacher and the students are not overwhelmed by a method that seems unapproachable (Flowers 40). Students are able to generate text by expressing their thoughts in the appropriately grammatical form versus analyzing a sentence for its grammaticality. Not only do teachers have an almost fail proof method for the classroom, but students also gain confidence in their own writing performance. Knowing that they have training wheels, students can concentrate on the process instead of the product.
    ::其它方法同样也起作用,但这一食谱为那些认为与哲学相容的教师和学生提供了另一种选择,不应在课堂上将其他活动排除在外,如免费写作、日记条目和创造性写作等。Glyfada方法的关键在于给教师和学生一个通过写作过程的食谱。通过减少“认知紧张 ” , 也就是说,必须把组成过程的所有方面杂耍起来,同时侧重于写作的一两个重要方面,教师和学生不会被一种似乎无法使用的方法(花花40)所压倒。 学生能够通过以适当的语法形式表达他们的想法,而不是分析其语法性来生成文字。 教师不仅拥有几乎失败的课堂证明方法,而且学生也对自己的写作表现有信心。 学生们知道他们有培训轮,可以专注于过程而不是产品。

    II. Research on Invention in the Classroom
    ::二. 课堂发明研究

    Invention refers to all mental activity preceding transcription. Once concerned with argumentation only, it is now used in all modes of writing. It “usually begins with identifying the crucial issue to be argued (a question of fact, definition, quality, or procedure)” (Young 36). With renewed interest in invention, writing instructors who have reevaluated their teaching methods in order “to provide effective instruction in....the ‘prewriting stage’ of the composing process and in the analytical and synthetic skills necessary for good thinking” (Young 33). Authors of writing texts come up with a variety of “schemes, lists, matrices, patterns, devices, and questions to stimulate the capacities writers already have for finding topics and ideas” (Ruszkiewicz 80). No one system offers the final solution to getting students to come up with topics and ideas. Rather, what works for the instructor seems to be the best approach.
    ::发明是指在转录之前的所有精神活动。它只涉及争论,现在用于所有写作方式。它“通常从确定需要争论的关键问题开始(一个事实、定义、质量或程序问题 ) ” ( Young 36 ) 。 有了新的发明的兴趣,写作教员们重新评价了他们的教学方法,以便“提供有效的教学 ” 。 编译过程的 " 准备阶段 " 以及良好思维所必需的分析和合成技能(You 33 ) 。 写作文本的作者们产生了各种“计划、列表、矩阵、模式、装置和问题,以刺激作家已经具备的发现专题和想法的能力”(Ruszkiewicz 80 ) 。 没有一个系统能提供最后的解决办法让学生提出专题和想法。 相反,对教员来说,对教员起作用的是什么似乎是最好的方法。

    In particular, four shifts in forms of invention used to teach composition have been prominent. The moving away from the composed product (i.e. the finished manuscript) to the composing process reflects the reemergence of invention (or heuristics) as part of the writing process. The first approach is classical invention. Classical rhetoric is the art of constructing persuasive arguments in five stages: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. In the first stage of the writing process, invention, the student discovers valid arguments by examining the issue at hand. The first kind of argument, non-artistic or non-technical proof (laws, witnesses, contracts, tortures, oaths) did not have to be  invented  because it was not part of rhetoric. In other words, the form and content were determined in advance, and no methods of discovering ideas were needed. However, the second kind, artistic proof, fell under rhetoric: rational appeal (logos), emotional appeal ( pathos ), and ethical appeal ( ethos ). Classical rhetoricians devised topics ( topoi ) as an aid in discovering ideas for the three modes of appeal. In rhetoric, “a topic was a place or store or thesaurus to which one resorted...it was a general head or line of argument which suggested material from which proofs could be made...a way of probing one’s subject...to discover possible ways of developing that subject” (Corbett 35). The first two stages of writing, invention and arrangement, have been particularly influential in that they are a means of discovering ideas and arranging them. It is a method of prewriting that is essential to the writing process.
    ::具体地说,用于教授构成的发明形式有四个变化,这些变化是显著的。从合成产品(即已完成的手稿)向组成过程的转变反映了作为写作过程一部分的发明(或超自然主义)的重新出现。第一种方法是古典的发明。古典的花言巧语是在五个阶段构建有说服力的论据的艺术:发明、安排、风格、记忆和交付。在写作过程的第一阶段,发明,学生通过研究手头的问题发现了有效的论据。第一种争论,非艺术或非技术证据(法律、证人、合同、酷刑、宣誓)的出现,反映了它并非作为写作过程的一部分的重新出现。换句话说,形式和内容是预先决定的,不需要发现思想的方法。然而,第二种,艺术证据,在口头上,理性上诉(logos)、情感上诉(pathos)和道德上诉(ethos)中,典型的花言辞(titooi)设计了主题,用来帮助人们发现三种思想(法律、契约、契约、酷刑、誓言)的出现过程。在口头上,在口头上,“一个理论是提出一个可能写作的手法,而一个理论是提出一个理论的阶段,而一个理论是提出一个理论的题目,一个理论,一个理论是一种理论是一种理论的理论的理论的理论的理论,它的一种方法,它的一种方法,它的一种方法是用来用来用来作为一种理论,它的一种方法,它的一种方法,它的一种方法,它的一种方法,它的一种方法,它的一种方法,它的一种方法,它的一种方法,它的一种方法是用来用来用来用来去动。”在一种理论,它的一种方法,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式是用来用来用来用来用来用来用来用来用来用来发展一种解释一种理论。在一种理论的。在一种理论的。在一种理论的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,一种方法,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式是用来作为一种推论。在一种方法,它的一种方式,一种方法,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,一种方式,一种方法,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式,它的一种方式

    A second approach to invention is Kenneth Burke’s dramatistic method, a “pentad of heuristic probes--act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose--for analyzing human motives and motifs in human experience, which broadly construed, include virtually everything we think and do” (Young 37). Burke (1955) states: “Any complete statement about motives will offer  some kind  of answers to these five questions: what was done (act), when or where it was done (scene), who did it (agent), how he did it (agency), and why (purpose)” (Young 37). Classical rhetoric and the dramatistic method are both similar and dissimilar: “The classical topics are aids in discovering possible arguments; the pentad is an aid in discovering the essential features of the behavior of groups or individuals” (Young 37). Instead of probing a topic for ideas, the pentad becomes a means of analyzing  “language behavior”  (Young 37). The who, what, when, where, how, why is a reporting approach, whereas the classical probing of a topic is designed to discover valid arguments of the issues. However, both approaches serve the purpose of getting information for development of a specific purpose.
    ::发明的第二种方法是肯尼斯·伯克的戏剧性方法,即“分析人类经验中的人类动机和意图的理论——动作、场景、代理人、代理、代理和目的,广义地解释,几乎包括我们所想和做的一切”(Young 37)。 伯克(Burke)(1955年)指出:“关于动机的任何完整说明都会为这五个问题提供某种答案:做了什么(行为)、何时或在哪里做了(斯凯内)、谁做了(演员)、他做了什么(机构)、为什么做了(机构)和为什么(目的)(Young 37)。古典言论和戏剧性方法是相似和不同的:“古典话题有助于发现可能的论据;五角德是对发现群体或个人行为的基本特征的帮助”(Young 37 ),“任何关于动机的完整说明都会为思想提出一个主题,而五角德则成为一种分析“语言行为”的手段(Young 37 ) 。 是谁,何时,为什么是报告方式,为什么是报告方式,而一个主题的古典论述是为了发现具体问题的正当目的。

    In a third approach, D. Gordon Rohman’s prewriting method is to “develop the creative potential of the writer in dealing with his or her own experience” (Young 37). “’To what end do we teach writing?’ Rohman (1965) asks”:
    ::第三种方式是,D. Gordon Rohman的预写方法是 " 开发作家处理自己经历的创造潜力 " (Young 37)。 " 我们教书的目的何在? " Rohman(1965年)问:

    If it is to ‘program’ students to produce ‘Letters and Reports for All Occasions,’ it is not only ignoble but impossible....However, if it is to enlighten them concerning the powers of creative discovery within them, then it is both a liberal discipline and a possible writing program...What we must do is place the principle of actualizing in the minds of students and the methods of imitating it in their hands. (Young 37)
    ::如果是为了“编程”学生制作“所有事件都用手写字和报告”, 这不仅是微不足道的, 也是不可能的。 ......然而,如果要让他们了解他们内部创造性发现的力量,那么它既是自由的纪律,又是可能的写作程序.我们必须做的是在学生的头脑中落实原则,把模仿方法放在他们手中。 (青年37)

    In order to introduce students to methods of creation and to help them “assimilate their subject to themselves,” Rohman uses a procedure he has developed from interests in Thoreau and in theoretical and applied work on creativity and concept formation (Jerome Bruner. 1965; William Gordon, 1961; Arthur Koestler, 1964)” (Young 37). In practical application he has students “keep a journal, practice principles derived from religious meditation, and employ analogy as the primary instrument for probing experience” (Young 38). This method may work well as a means of self-discovery, but it drifts from concentration on discovering ideas on a subject in classical invention. Rohman’s approach is the most contrary to the Glyfada Method. His emphasis is on creative writing and spontaneity, not on a formulaic approach that has steps to follow.
    ::为了向学生介绍创造方法并帮助他们“自我模仿”自己,罗曼使用了他从索罗的利益中和在创造和概念形成理论和应用工作(Jerome Bruner,1965年;William Gordon,1961年;Arthur Koestler,1964年)中开发出的程序(Young 37 ) 。 在实际应用中,他有学生“保存一本日记,实践源自宗教冥想的原则,并使用类比作为检验经验的主要工具”(Young 38 ) 。 这一方法可能行得通,也可以作为一种自我发现的手段,但从集中于在古典发明中发现关于某个主题的想法中流出。 Rohman的方法与Glyfada 方法最相悖。 他强调创造性的写作和自发性,而不是有步骤的公式方法。

    Four, another method of invention is derived from tagmemics, a linguistic theory developed by Kenneth Pike. “Since composing is but a specialized use of language, Pike argues, a theory about language behavior in general should also be applicable to composing behavior” (Young 38). In developing an art of invention, he set up a series of “heuristic procedures designed to aid the process of inquiry...it provides procedures for analyzing and formulating problems, for exploring problematic data in search of solutions, and for testing solutions” (Young 38). It also provides techniques for predetermining the basis of psychological change in an audience. Pike’s tagmemic method purports to do three things for the writer in dealing with experiencial material: “retrieval of relevant information already known, analysis of problematic data, and discovery of new concepts and ordering principles” (Young 39). Pike’s tagmemic’s invention differs from classical rhetoric and prewriting. Classical rhetoric concentrates on discovering arguments and bringing about a psychological change in the audience. Prewriting allows an ordering of principles and the appropriate changes in the writer. However, tagmemic invention is concerned with systems, processes, styles, and approaches in that it becomes a problem-solving exercise. It deals with the problems arising from one’s own experiences and those problems generated out of a need to change other people’s ideas.
    ::4,另一个发明方法来自由肯尼斯派克(Kenneth Pike)开发的一种语言理论(Tagmemimics ) 。 “自成一体只是专门使用语言,Pike认为,一般语言行为理论一般也应该适用于形成行为”(Young 38 ) 。 在开发发明艺术的过程中,他设置了一系列“旨在帮助调查过程的湿化程序......它提供了分析和制定问题、探索问题数据以寻求解决方案和测试解决方案的程序 ” ( Young 38 ) 。它也为预先确定观众心理变化的基础提供了技术。 Pike的标记法方法旨在让作家在处理外部材料时做三件事 : “ 检索已知相关信息,分析问题数据,发现新概念和定律原则 ” (You 39 ) 。 Peke的标记方法不同于古典的言辞和预写作。 经典的言辞侧重于发现论点,并带来观众心理变化。 Pikemic 方法的预言让自己能够对原理和风格进行排序,但是,在作家的处理中出现一个问题时,它会产生问题。

    Each of the four methods of invention emphasizes a different approach for using invention to teach writing. Classical rhetoric probes the topic and discovers arguments in order to present the issues clearly and forcefully. Invention as the first of the five stages of preparing for an argument is a more structured, analytical approach. Burke’s pentad takes a journalistic approach, answering who, what, when, where, why, and how. The reporting formula used here contrasts to the classical approach used to build an argument. Rohman uses a self-discovery method of journals, meditation, and analogies. This mention of invention is a creative, free-flowing style that works well with certain types of writing. But, students need more structured approaches for essays and reports. Pike’s tagmemics incorporates the probing of the writer’s experiences in the world and his ability to use those experiences to bring about a change in his audience. This approach uses problem-solving techniques which contrast to the discovering of crucial issues in classical invention. Regardless of the label it is interesting to note that these experts, along with thousands of other composition instructors, see a need for some prewriting activity in the invention stage in order to produce a better product. Whether it be journals, free writing, or heuristics, the emphasis has shifted from the composed product to the composing process.
    ::四种发明方法中的每一种都强调使用发明来教授写作的不同方法。古典的言辞对主题进行了探讨,并发现了各种论点,以便明确和有力地提出问题。作为准备争论的五个阶段中的第一个阶段,发明是一种更有条理的分析性方法。伯克的五角大楼采用了一种新闻方法,回答谁、何时、何地、何地、为何和如何使用。这里使用的报告公式与用来建立争论的古典方法形成对比。罗曼使用了一种自我发现杂志、默思和类比的方法。提到发明是一种创造性的、自由流的风格,与某些类型的写作非常有效。但是,学生们需要更有条理的论文和报告方法。派克的标记符号结合了作家在世界上的经验以及他利用这些经验来改变听众的能力。这个方法使用解决问题的方法与发现古典发明的关键问题形成对比。不管标签如何有趣,这些专家和其他成文的成品教师一起,需要更有条理的方法来改变某些作品的编写过程。

    In looking for a method that is appropriate for the classroom, we need to ask ourselves several questions.
    ::为了寻找适合教室的方法,我们需要问自己几个问题。

    1. Does the method sound good in theory, but does it work poorly in the classroom?
      ::这种方法在理论上听起来不错吗? 但是在课堂上效果不好吗?
    2. Does it accomplish the things it is supposed to do? Does it allow for adequate probing of a topic?
      ::它是否完成了它应该做的事情?它是否允许对一个专题进行充分调查?
    3. Do students get frustrated in trying to use the guidelines? Does it hinder rather than help their writing?
      ::学生在试图使用指南时是否感到沮丧? 它阻碍而不是帮助学生写作?
    4. Do students begin to rely too heavily on method, thus keeping themselves from stretching their mental processes?
      ::学生是否开始过于依赖方法,从而避免延长他们的心理过程?
    5. Do students feel more positive or negative about writing? Apathetic?
      ::学生是否对写作感到更积极或消极?
    6. Does the method work with only certain kinds of writing, leaving the students and teacher to find other methods for other types of writing?
      ::该方法是否只使用某些类型的写作方法,让学生和教师寻找其他类型的写作方法?

    Not all approaches are compatible with all instructors. To use a computer term, the method must be user friendly in order for all to benefit from it.
    ::并非所有方法都与所有教员兼容,使用计算机术语时,方法必须方便用户,以便所有人都能从中受益。

    Using a method of invention offers an approach that will make writing less frightening and more comprehensible. Each of the invention techniques presented above has merits that can be gleaned and used in the classroom. When we choose a method of discovery for maximum creativity and productivity, Timothy R. Donovan and Ben W. McClelland tell us to ask these questions: Is it accessible? Is it harmonious? and Is it feasible? (Donovan xii-xiii). If we can answer yes, then we will feel comfortable with that method.
    ::使用发明方法可以提供一种方法,使写作更不可怕、更易理解。上面介绍的发明技术都有其优点,可以在课堂上收集和使用。当我们选择一种探索方法,实现最大创造性和生产力时,Timothy R. Donovan和Ben W.McClelland告诉我们问这些问题:它是否无障碍?它是否和谐?它是否可行? (Donovan xii-xiii).如果我们能够回答是的,那么我们就会对这种方法感到自在。

    III. Invention in the Classroom
    ::三. 课堂上的发明

    “If we want students to write better, teachers in every discipline will have to insist that students write,” an activity that includes invention techniques to access ideas they have stored on a mental disc (Odell “Teaching...” 139). To teach these invention skills, we must start with a basic plan to help students identify what they want to say and a way to say it.
    ::“如果我们想要学生写得更好,每个学科的教师都必须坚持学生写作,”这一活动包括发明技术,以获取他们存储在精神盘上的思想(Odell “教学...... ”139 ) 。 要教授这些发明技能,我们必须从一个基本计划开始,帮助学生确定他们想说什么和说什么。

    I am asking that we think of writing as a process of discovery, a process of exploring, a process of creating, testing, and refining hypotheses. As we teach students how to engage in this process, we increase their chances of learning and performing well in our individual subject areas (Odell “Teaching...” 140).
    ::我要求我们把写作视为一个发现过程,一个探索的过程,一个创造、测试和完善假设的过程。 当我们教学生如何参与这个过程时,我们增加了他们在我们个别主题领域学习和表现良好的机会(Odell “教学 ” 140 ) 。

    Invention refers to other formal methods “designed to aid in retrieving information, forming concepts, analyzing complex events, and solving certain kinds of problems” (Young 32). It usually begins with “identifying the crucial issue to be argued (a quest of fact, definition, quality, or procedure)” which helps to determine the thesis of the argument (Young 36).
    ::发明是指“旨在帮助检索信息、形成概念、分析复杂事件和解决某些类型的问题”的其他正式方法(青年32),它通常以“确定需要论证的关键问题(寻求事实、定义、质量或程序)”开始,这有助于确定论点的论据(青年36)。

    For many years, invention activities in the first stages of writing had a low priority, if they existed at all. For example, in her study of the composing processes of twelfth graders, Janet Emig (1971) notes that “‘in school-sponsored writing, there is often no time provided for... [the prewriting] portion of the writing process’” (Young 34). Without the prewriting activities the quality of the product becomes a matter of luck. If the writer happens to pull it together with good ideas, the paper works; if he has no idea of what he wants to say, he may write a rambling, incoherent paper. The results can easily be failure and frustration; students end up hating writing because they do not know how to build a paper.
    ::多年来,写作第一阶段的发明活动如果真的存在的话,其优先程度并不高。 比如,珍妮特·埃米格(Janet Emig)(1971年)在研究十二年级学生的形成过程时指出,“在学校赞助的写作中,往往没有时间为写作过程的...[写 部分提供时间 ” (Young 34 ) 。 没有预写活动,产品的质量就会成为一个幸运问题。 如果作者碰巧将它与好的想法结合起来,那么纸就起作用了;如果他不知道他想说什么,他可能会写出一幅乱七八糟的、不连贯的论文。 结果很容易是失败和挫折;学生最终对写作感到憎恨,因为他们不知道如何造纸。

    Invention  does  make a difference in any writer’s performance. Odell verifies this assertion from his own writing experiences:
    ::Odell根据自己的写作经验来证实这一说法:

    At times, the process of discovery may lead us to make major changes in our understanding of a given topic; we may no longer think or feel as we once did. More frequently, for me at least, the process of discovery entails a revision of existing structures, a heightened sense of a relationship between  X  and  Y , a clearer understanding of the implications of a given assumption. (“Teaching...” 143)
    ::有时,发现过程可能导致我们对某个特定议题的理解发生重大变化;我们可能不再像过去那样思考或感觉。 更经常的是,至少对我来说,发现过程需要修改现有结构,增强X和Y之间的关系意识,更清楚地了解特定假设的影响。 (“教学......”143)

    When we come to what seems like an impasse, we need a method to loosen ideas and let them flow freely, slowly forming a coherent picture of what we want to say. The invention method provides the impetus for good writing for many students who never thought they could fill a blank page. In giving advice to new freshman composition instructors, John J. Ruszkiewicz stresses discovery techniques as essential to teaching success: “Design a class that sparks the invention of ideas, that encourages exploration of structures and styles, that heightens students’ awareness of audience and purpose...” (80). He also states, “inexperienced writers need to be taught to probe into the recesses of any subject to discover what there is that is surprising, informative, pleasurable, or useful to a reader” (80). It is unfortunate that many instructors have never heard this advice.
    ::当我们进入似乎像僵局的阶段时,我们需要一种方法来放松思想,让思想自由流通,慢慢地对想要说的话形成一个一致的画面。发明方法为许多从未认为能够填满空白页子的学生提供了良好的写作动力。 在向新新生组成教官提供建议时,约翰·鲁斯兹基维茨强调发现技术对于教学成功至关重要 : “ 设计一个激发思想发明、鼓励探索结构和风格、提高学生对受众和目的的认识的班级 ” ( 80 ) 。 他还说 , “ 没有经验的作家需要被教导去探索任何学科的休息,以发现什么是令人惊讶的、信息丰富、快乐的或对读者有用的内容 ” ( 80 ) 。 不幸的是,许多教官从未听到过这种建议。

    Writing instructors must deal directly with the lack of inventive skills that plague inexperienced writers. In the age of prepackaged lesson plans, we must head Lucy Calkins’ warning: “After detouring around the authentic, human reasons for writing, we bury the students’ urge to write all the more with boxes, kits, and manuals full of synthetic writing-stimulants” (4). Instead of using these artificial stimulants to teach writing, we must help students understand the writing process. Understanding what happens as they go through each stage of composing eliminates anxiety and uncertainty. Students are amazed at how quickly they can fill a sheet of paper with prewriting ideas and at how the ideas build from the early stages to the final draft (Murray 3). Slowly, the unconnected words and phrases begin to build a scaffold and take on a natural order. As drafting and revision stages progress, development moves from superficial levels of planning to more sophisticated ones. What begins as a crude form develops into a solid framework that stands independently.
    ::写作教官必须直接处理困扰经验丰富的作家的缺乏发明技能的问题。 在预先包装的课程计划时代,我们必须领导露西·卡尔金斯的警告 : “ 在对真实的、人为的写作理由进行辨别之后,我们埋葬学生们更强烈的写作欲望,用装满合成写作兴奋剂的盒子、工具包和手册来写作 ” (4) 。 我们必须帮助学生理解写作过程。 理解他们经过每个阶段制造焦虑和不确定性时所发生的事情。 学生们对于他们能够以预写思想和想法如何从早期到最后草稿(Murray 3 ) , 慢慢地, 互不关联的词句开始形成一个脚架,并接受自然秩序。 在起草和修改阶段, 发展从浅层规划到更复杂的阶段。 粗糙的形态开始发展成为一个独立而坚实的框架。

    Invention makes discovering, arranging, and expressing material more effective. “It represents a  positive  approach to the problems of writing” (Corbett 43). Not only is the material directed to a specific end, it “can lay down general principles that the student can adapt to fit the particular situation...it can provide the student with a set of procedures and criteria that can guide him in making strategic decisions in the composition process” (Corbett 43). Corbett recognizes the danger of working with a predetermined model: “There is no denying that formula can retard and has retarded inventiveness and creativity. But to admit that formula can inhibit the writer is not to admit that it invariably does inhibit him” (Corbett 44).
    ::发明使发现、安排和表达材料更为有效。 “它代表了对写作问题的一种积极态度”(Corbett 43)。 它不仅针对特定目的的材料,而且“可以规定学生能够适应具体情况的一般原则......它可以向学生提供一套程序和标准,指导他作出组成过程中的战略决定”(Corbett 43)。 Cobett承认采用预先确定的模式工作的危险:“毫无疑问,公式可以阻滞,并且会阻碍发明和创造性。 ”但承认,公式可以阻止作者承认,它不会总是抑制他”(Corbett 44)。

    If we do not limit the possibilities, invention proves to be a valuable aid. In the 70’s Frank J. D’Angelo observed the “shift from thinking of invention as the search for ideas  before one begins to write  to thinking of it as  an ongoing process  that continues throughout the arrangement of those ideas (41-42). With prewriting activities now being widely used in classrooms at all grade levels, we have to avoid thinking that searching out and discovering ideas ends with planning. Composition teachers need to tell students that as the essay progresses, ideas are refined and can be either deleted or expanded. In fact, the final draft may not even resemble the ideas discovered in the preplanning stage. James Moffett’s  Teaching the Universe of Discourse  (1968) elaborates the ideas of this continuum.
    ::如果我们不限制可能性,发明就证明是一种宝贵的帮助。 在70年代的Frank J. D’Angelo中,“人们在开始写作之前,就把发明视为寻找想法,而将发明视为一种持续的过程,在整个思想安排期间(41-42 ) 。 现在,所有年级的教室都广泛使用预写活动,我们必须避免认为搜索和发现想法最终会随着规划而结束。 组成教师需要告诉学生,随着论文的进展,思想会得到完善,也可以被删除或扩大。 事实上,最终草案甚至可能与预规划阶段发现的想法不同。 詹姆斯·莫菲特(James Moffett)的《Discours of Dision(1968) ” 教授“Discours of Dism(1968) ” , 阐述了这一连续体的概念。

    At one extreme, one talks about ‘what is happening,’ recording unselectively the phenomena that occur at the moment one speaks or writes. As one moves along Moffett’s continuum, one writes about subjects that are increasingly remote in time and space; that is, one abstracts from previous experience and reports about ‘what happened.’ Then one generalizes about recurrent phenomena, about ‘what happens.’ And finally one theorizes about ‘what will or might happen.’ (Odell “Discourse Theory” 5)
    ::在一个极端,一个人谈论`正在发生的事情, ' 却非选择性地记录了当时人们说话或写作时所出现的现象。 当一个人走在Moffett的连续体上时,一个人写到在时间和空间上越来越遥远的主题;也就是说,从以往的经验和报告中总结了`发生的事情'。 然后,一个人概括了反复出现的现象,“发生的事情。 ”最后,一个人对`将发生或可能发生的事情 ' 进行了理论论断。 (Odell“Discours Theory” 5)

    Moffett’s ideas encourage all types of spontaneous writing activities as a means of reaching the final draft. The first stages may include such assignments as journal entries, free writes, timed writings, or in-class directed essays.
    ::Moffett的想法鼓励所有类型的自发写作活动,作为达到最终草案的手段。 第一阶段可能包括日记条目、免费写作、定时写作或班级指导文章等任务。

    Invention helps students become independent writers. A teacher can use prompts, but students have the ideas stored within themselves. Twenty years ago, in English classes the technique of invention would have put the teacher under scrutiny for not teaching writing. To tell the students they were in charge of their own writing would have caused a considerable stir. Even now, Murray speculates, “It is very hard for traditionally-trained teachers who are not writing themselves to believe that students can write without instruction from the teacher or without assignment” (14). Teachers have to experience the writing process themselves in order to understand it and help students work through the stages. Many teachers think they have to accept responsibility for the blank, crumpled pages of frustrated students. An understanding of the writing process helps students learn not only to be better writers but also to evaluate their own work. In English classes students are required to do more self-evaluating than in a traditional content course. Murray states that “As the student passes through the stages of the writing process and tries to bring the forces within the process into balance, there is a constant evaluation of the writing process” (17-18).
    ::发明可以帮助学生成为独立作家。 教师可以使用提示,但学生可以自己存储思想。 20年前,在英语班里,发明技术会将教师置于不教授写作的检查之下。 告诉学生他们自己负责写作会引发很大的骚动。 即使是现在,默里推测 , “ 传统上受过训练的教师,只要没有写作,就很难相信学生可以在没有教师的指示或没有任务的情况下写作 ” ( 14 ) 。 教师必须亲身体验写作过程,以便理解它并帮助学生在各阶段工作。 许多教师认为,他们必须接受对沮丧学生的空白、破碎的网页负责。 理解写作过程不仅帮助学生学习更好的作家,而且帮助学生评估自己的作品。 在英语班里,学生必须比传统内容课程做更多的自我评价。 默里说 , “ 学生通过写作过程的各个阶段,并试图使力量在写作过程中保持平衡。 ” ( 17-18) 。

    Works Cited
    ::被引用的功用

    Calkins, Lucy McCormick.  The Art of Teaching Writing . Portsmouth, New Hampshire: Heinemann Educational Books, Inc., 1986.
    ::Calkins, Lucy McCormick,《教学写作艺术》,Portsmouth,新罕布什尔:Heinmann教育书籍公司,1986年。

    Corbett, Edward P. J.  Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student .  2 n d  ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.
    ::Corbett, Edward P. J. 经典Rhetoric for the Modern Student Student.第二版,纽约:牛津大学出版社,1971年。

    D’Angelo, Frank J. “Paradigms as Structural Counterparts of  Topoi .” In  Linguistics, Stylistics, and the Teaching of Composition . Ed. Donald McQuade. 41-51.
    ::D ' Angelo, Frank J. Frank J. “作为顶端结构对立面的模型”。 在语言学、立体学和组成教学中。 Ed. Donald McQuade. 41-51。

    Donovan, Timothy R. and Ben W. McClelland. In Introduction to  Eight Approaches To Teaching Composition . Donovan and McClelland, ed. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1980. ix-vx.
    ::Donovan、Timothy R.和Ben W. McClelland,《教学构成的八种方法介绍》,Donovan和McClelland编辑,伊利诺伊州Urbana:全国英语教师理事会,1980年。

    Flowers, Linda S. and John R. Hayes. “The Dynamics of Composing: Making Plans and Juggling Constraints.”  Cognitive Processes in Writing . Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1980. 31-50.
    ::花,Linda S.和John R. Hayes,“组合的动态:制定计划和形成障碍”。 《书写的认知过程》,Hillsdale,新泽西:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,出版社,1980年,31-50。

    Murray, Donald. “Writing as Process: How Writing Finds Its Own Meaning.” In  Eight Approaches To Teaching Composition . Eds. Timothy R. Donovan and Ben W. McClelland. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers, 1980. 3-20.
    ::Murray, Donald, “作为过程的写作:写作如何找到它本身的意义”。 《教学构成的八种方法》,Eds.Timothy R. Donovan和Ben W. McClelland. Urbana,伊利诺伊州,Urbana:全国教师理事会,1980年,3-20。

    Odell, Lee, Charles R. Cooper, and Cynthia Courts. “Discourse Theory: Implications for Research in Composing.” In  Research on Composing: Points of Departure . Ed. Charles R. Cooper and Lee Odell. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1978. 1-12.
    ::Odell, Lee, Charles R. Cooper, and Cynthia Courts, “课程理论:对综合研究的影响”。 载于《合成研究:离开点》,Ed. Charles R. Cooper和Lee Odell, Urbana, 伊利诺伊州,伊利诺伊州:全国英语教师理事会,1978年。

    Odell, Lee. “Teaching Writing by Teaching the Process of Discovery: An Interdisciplinary Enterprise.” In  Cognitive Processes in Writing . Ed. Lee W. Gregg and Erwin R. Steinberg. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1980. 139-154.
    ::Odell, Lee, “通过教授发现过程进行写作教学:跨学科企业”。 《写作认知过程》,Ed. Lee W. Gregg和Erwin R. Steinberg, Hillsdale, 新泽西:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publicers, 1980. 139-154。

    Ruszkiewicz, John J. “The Great Commandment.” In  Training the New Teacher of College Composition . Ed. Charles W. Bridges. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1986. 78-83.
    ::Ruszkiewicz, John J.“大命令”。 在培训学院组成新教师方面,Charles W. Bridges Ed. Charles W. Bridges, Urbana, 伊利诺伊州:全国英语教师理事会,1986年,78-83。

    Young, Richard E. “Paradigms and Problems: Needed Research in Rhetorical Invention.” In  Research on Composing: Points of Departure . Ed. Charles R. Cooper and Lee Odell. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1978. 29-47.
    ::Richard E. Young, Richard E. “模型与问题:需要的风湿发明研究”。 《合成研究:出发点》,Ed. Charles R. Cooper和Lee Odell, Urbana, 伊利诺伊州:全国英语教师理事会,1978年,第29-47页。

    Learning Objectives

    • use heuristics to find a topic
      ::使用超理论来寻找一个专题
    • determine the focus of the essay
      ::确定文章的焦点
    • identify a target audience
      ::确定目标受众
    • inventory a topic to determine main points
      ::确定要点的专题
    • look at main points and decide on sub-points to develop paragraphs
      ::审视主要要点,并就拟订段落的分点作出决定
    • decide on which appeal to use: logos, pathos, ethos
      ::决定使用哪一种吸引力:标志、病理、特质。
    • write a strong basic thesis
      ::写一个强大的基础论文
    • know how to organize an essay
      ::知道如何组织一篇论文
    • understand the writing process (prewriting, organizing, composing, revising, and editing)
      ::理解写作过程(编写、组织、组织、编制、修改和编辑)
    • explain, analyze, and develop ideas
      ::解释、分析和开发想法

    The Glyfada Method: Working Smarter, Not Harder

    The most difficult part of starting a writing assignment is choosing a topic and figuring out what you want to say about it. The Glyfada Method is an amazing tool that helps you begin a writing assignment without anxiety or dread. There is no need to stare at the blank sheet of paper and wonder what to write when you have an easier way to jump start your paper.
    ::开始写作任务最困难的部分是选择一个主题, 并了解您想要对它说什么。 Glyfada 方法是一个令人惊叹的工具, 帮助您在没有焦虑或恐惧的情况下开始写工作。 不需要盯着空白纸页看, 并想知道在您有更容易的方式跳动开始写纸的时候写什么 。

    What Does the Term “Glyfada” Mean?

    The name “Glyfada” has nothing to do with writing. It comes from the suburb Glyfada, Greece, an area twenty minutes from the center of Athens. One day when I was teaching a beginning composition class at an American university in Glyfada, I started by suggesting we find a common topic and work through the composing steps together. I wanted to demonstrate how students could use my writing method. In the first step of the method, we listed subjects the class had in common. The class chose to focus on Glyfada, an attractive Greek resort town on the Aegean. We used Glyfada as an essay topic and took it through the entire writing process. Students thereafter called it the Glyfada Method.
    ::“ Glyfada” 的名称与写作无关。 它来自希腊的Glyfada郊区, 距雅典中心只有20分钟。 一天, 当我在Glyfada的一所美国大学教初创的合成课时, 我开始建议我们找到一个共同的话题, 通过拼写步骤一起工作。 我想展示学生如何使用我的写作方法。 在方法的第一阶段, 我们列出了该类共有的科目。 该类选修课选择把重点放在Glyfada上, Glyfada是爱琴岛上一个有吸引力的希腊度假胜地。 我们用Glyfada作为论文主题, 并把它作为整个写作过程。 学生后来称之为Glyfada 方法 。

    What Can the Glyfada Method Do for You?

    The Glyfada Method is a formula that guides you through writing an essay. It provides a structure for you to build a strong foundation. It focuses on the most difficult part of an assignment—getting started. You may ask if that formula restricts your creativity. The answer is no; it is the opposite. Once you have a structure, you are free to be creative. You have to know your rules (structure) to break the rules. The Glyfada Method helps you, the writer, figure out what your main points are and what you have to say about each main point.
    ::Glyfada 方法是一种公式,它通过撰写论文来指导您。它为您提供了一个构建坚实基础的结构。它侧重于任务中最困难的部分。 它已经开始了。 您可以询问该公式是否限制了你的创造力。 答案是否定的, 正好相反。 一旦你有一个结构, 你就可以自由地创造。 你必须知道规则( 结构) 才能打破规则。 Glyfada 方法帮助您, 作者, 弄清楚你的主要点是什么, 以及你要对每个要点说什么 。