章节大纲

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  • 学习行为

    A person in gray sweatpants and shoes is dribbling a soccer ball on dirt.

    Do you play a sport?
    ::你玩运动吗?

    If you play a sport like soccer, then you realize it takes a lot of work. Remember how you didn't know at all what you were doing when you first started? You had rules to figure out and skills to practice. Playing a sport is an example of a learned behavior.
    ::如果你玩足球这样的运动,那么你就会意识到它需要大量的工作。记住你第一次开始的时候,你怎么会不知道自己在做什么?你有规则来理解和练习技能。运动是学习行为的一个范例。

    Learned Behavior
    ::学习行为

    Just about all human behaviors are learned. Learned behavior is behavior that occurs only after experience or practice. Learned behavior has an advantage over : it is more flexible. Learned behavior can be changed if conditions change. For example, you probably know the route from your house to your school. Assume that you moved to a new house in a different place, so you had to take a different route to school. What if following the old route was an innate behavior? You would not be able to adapt. Fortunately, it is a learned behavior. You can learn the new route just as you learned the old one.
    ::有关所有人类行为都是学习的。 学习行为是只有在经验或实践之后才会发生的行为。 学习行为有一个优势: 它更灵活。 学习行为可以随着条件的变化而改变。 比如, 你也许知道从你家到学校的路线。 比如, 你可能知道从你家到学校的路线。 假设你搬到了另一个地方的新房子, 所以你不得不选择不同的路线去学校。 如果遵循旧路线是天生的行为, 你就不能适应。 幸运的是, 它是一种学习行为。 你可以学习新路线, 就像你学到旧路线一样。

    Although most animals can learn, animals with greater intelligence are better at learning and have more learned behaviors. Humans are the most intelligent animals. They depend on learned behaviors more than any other species . Other highly intelligent species include apes, our closest relatives in the animal kingdom . They include chimpanzees and gorillas. Both are also very good at learning behaviors.
    ::尽管大多数动物可以学习,但智力较强的动物在学习方面比较好,行为也比较有学识。人类是最聪明的动物。人类比其他物种更依赖学习行为。其他高度聪明的物种包括猿类,我们在动物王国的近亲。它们包括黑猩猩和大猩猩。两者在学习行为方面都非常出色。

    You may have heard of a gorilla named Koko. The psychologist, Dr. Francine Patterson, raised Koko. Dr. Patterson wanted to find out if gorillas could learn human language . Starting when Koko was just one year old, Dr. Patterson taught her to use sign language. Koko learned to use and understand more than 1,000 signs. Koko showed how much gorillas can learn.
    ::你可能听说过一个叫Koko的大猩猩。心理学家Francine Patterson博士抚养Koko。Patterson博士想知道大猩猩是否可以学习人类语言。从Koko刚满一岁开始,Patterson博士教她使用手语。Koko学会使用和理解1000多个标志。Koko展示了大猩猩能学习多少。

    Think about some of the behaviors you have learned. They might include riding a bicycle, using a computer, and playing a musical instrument or sport. You probably did not learn all of these behaviors in the same way. Perhaps you learned some behaviors on your own, just by practicing. Other behaviors you may have learned from other people. Humans and other animals can learn behaviors in several different ways.
    ::想想你学到的一些行为。 这可能包括骑自行车、使用计算机、玩乐器或运动。 你可能没有以同样的方式学到所有这些行为。 也许你自己学会了一些行为,只是通过练习。你可能从其他人身上学到了其他行为。人类和其他动物可以以不同的方式学习行为。

    The following methods of learning will be explored below:
    ::以下将探讨以下学习方法:

    1. Habituation (forming a habit)
      ::伤风(形成习惯)
    2. Observational learning
      ::观察学习
    3. Conditioning
      ::附加条件
    4. Play
      ::播放播放
    5. Insight learning
      ::透视学习

    Habituation
    ::伤 伤 伤 伤

    Habituation is learning to get used to something after being exposed to it for a while. Habituation usually involves getting used to something that is annoying or frightening, but not dangerous. Habituation is one of the simplest ways of learning. It occurs in just about every species of animal.
    ::恋童癖是一种在接触它一段时间后学会习惯的东西。 恋童癖通常是指习惯于一种令人烦恼或恐惧但并不危险的东西。 恋童癖是最简单的学习方式之一,它发生在每一种动物身上。

    You have probably learned through habituation many times. For example, maybe you were reading a book when someone turned on a television in the same room. At first, the sound of the television may have been annoying. After a while, you may no longer have noticed it. If so, you had become habituated to the sound.
    ::您可能已经通过习惯学习过很多次了。 比如, 当某人在同一房间打开电视时, 您可能正在阅读一本书。 一开始, 电视的声音可能很烦人 。 过一阵子之后, 您可能就不再注意到了 。 如果是这样的话, 您已经习惯了声音 。

    Another example of habituation is shown below ( Figure ). Crows and most other are usually afraid of people. They avoid coming close to people, or they fly away when people come near them. The crows landing on this scarecrow have become used to a “human” in this place. They have learned that the scarecrow poses no danger. They are no longer afraid to come close. They have become habituated to the scarecrow.
    ::下面是另一个常住的例子(图 ) 。 人群和大部分人通常害怕人们,他们避免接近人群,或当人们接近人群时飞走。这个稻草人的乌鸦已经习惯了这里的“人 ” 。他们知道稻草人没有危险,不再害怕接近人群。他们已经习惯了稻草人。他们已经习惯了稻草人。

    A silhouette of a scarecrow against a sunset, with a crow perched nearby.

    This scarecrow is no longer scary to this crow. The crow has become used to its being in this spot and learned that it is not dangerous. This is an example of habituation.
    ::这只稻草人对于这只乌鸦已经不再可怕了。 乌鸦已经习惯了它在这个地方的存在,并了解到它并不危险。 这是一个习惯的例子。

    Can you see why habituation is useful? It lets animals ignore things that will not harm them. Without habituation, animals might waste time and energy trying to escape from things that are not really dangerous.
    ::你明白为什么习惯化有用吗?它让动物忽略不会伤害他们的东西。没有习惯化,动物可能会浪费时间和精力,试图逃避并非真正危险的东西。

    Observational Learning
    ::观察学习

    Observational learning is learning by watching and copying the behavior of someone else. Human children learn many behaviors this way. When you were a young child, you may have learned how to tie your shoes by watching your dad tie his shoes. More recently, you may have learned how to dance by watching a pop star dancing on TV. Most likely, you have learned how to do math problems by watching your teachers do problems on the board at school. Can you think of other behaviors you have learned by watching and copying other people?
    ::观察性学习是通过观察和模仿别人的行为来学习的。人类儿童以这种方式学习许多行为。当你还是个孩子时,你可能已经学会了如何通过看着你爸爸系鞋带来系鞋带。最近,你可能已经学会了如何跳舞,通过看一个流行明星在电视上跳舞。你很可能已经学会了如何做数学问题,通过看你的老师在学校板上做问题。你能想到通过看和模仿别人来学习的其他行为吗?

    Other animals also learn through observational learning. For example, young wolves learn to be better hunters by watching and copying the skills of older wolves in their pack. Another example of observational learning is how some monkeys have learned to wash their food. They learned by watching and copying the behavior of other monkeys.
    ::其他动物也通过观察学习来学习。例如,年轻的狼群通过在他们的包里观看和复制老狼的技能学习成为更好的猎人。另一个观察学习的例子就是一些猴子如何学会洗食物。他们通过观察和复制其他猴子的行为来学习。

    Conditioning
    ::附加条件

    Conditioning is a way of learning that involves a reward or punishment. Did you ever train a dog to fetch a ball or stick by rewarding it with treats? If you did, you were using conditioning. Another example of conditioning is shown in the video below; the rats have been taught to “play basketball” by being rewarded with food pellets. What do you think would happen if the rats were no longer rewarded for this behavior?
    ::附加条件是一种涉及奖赏或惩罚的学习方式。 你有没有训练一只狗去取球或用奖赏来坚持球?如果你训练它去取球或用奖赏来坚持球?如果你训练它,你正在使用调制。下面的视频中还展示了另一个调制的例子;老鼠们被教导要“玩篮球 ” , 用食物颗粒来奖赏。 如果老鼠不再因这种行为而得奖,你觉得会发生什么呢?

     

    Conditioning also occurs in wild animals. For example, bees learn to find nectar in certain types of flowers because they have found nectar in those flowers before.
    ::野生动物中也存在养殖问题,例如,蜜蜂学会在某些种类的花朵中找到蜜桃,因为他们以前在这些花朵中发现了蜜桃。

    Humans learn behaviors through conditioning, as well. A young child might learn to put away his toys by being rewarded with a bedtime story. An older child might learn to study for tests in school by being rewarded with better grades. Can you think of behaviors you have learned by being rewarded for them?
    ::人类也可以通过调节学习行为。 一个幼儿可以学习把玩具丢弃,通过一个睡前故事获得奖励。 一个年长的孩子可以学习在学校学习测试,通过更好的成绩获得奖励。 你能想到通过奖励他们而学到的行为吗?

    Conditioning does not always involve a reward. It can involve a punishment, instead. A toddler might be punished with a time-out each time he grabs a toy from his baby brother. After several time-outs, he may learn to stop taking his brother’s toys.
    ::附加条件并不总是涉及奖励。 相反,它可能涉及惩罚。 每次他从小兄弟那里抢走玩具时,都可能受到超时惩罚。 经过几次超时后,他可能学会停止拿走他兄弟的玩具。

    A dog might be scolded each time she jumps up on the sofa. After repeated scolding, she may learn to stay off the sofa. A bird might become ill after eating a poisonous . The bird may learn from this “punishment” to avoid eating the same kind of insect in the future.
    ::一只狗每次跳上沙发都可能会被骂,在多次骂之后,她可能会学会远离沙发。 鸟吃有毒食物后可能会生病。 鸟可以从这种“惩罚”中学习,以避免今后再吃同样的昆虫。

    Learning by Playing
    ::边玩边学

    Most young mammals , including humans, like to play. Play is one ways they learn the skills that they will need as adults. Think about how kittens play. They pounce on toys and chase each other. This helps them learn how to be better predators when they are older. Big cats also play. The lion cubs pictured below are playing and practicing their hunting skills at the same time ( Figure ). The dogs are playing tug-of-war with a toy ( Figure ). What do you think they are learning by playing together this way?
    ::包括人类在内的大多数年轻的哺乳动物都喜欢玩耍。玩耍是他们学习成人需要的技能的一种方式。 想想小猫玩耍的方式。 他们跳到玩具上, 互相追逐。 这有助于他们学会长大后如何成为更好的掠食者。 大猫也玩耍。 下面的狮子幼崽同时玩耍和练习狩猎技能( 图表 ) 。 狗们用玩具玩拖网战( Figure ) 。 你认为他们这样一起玩会学到什么?

    Other young animals play in different ways. For example, young deer play by running and kicking up their hooves. This helps them learn how to escape from predators.
    ::其他年轻动物以不同的方式玩耍。例如,小鹿通过跑步和踢脚来玩耍,这有助于他们学会如何逃离掠食动物。

    Lion cubs playing and practicing hunting skills on the left; dogs playing tug-of-war on the right.

    Left: These two lion cubs are playing. They are not only having fun, but they are also learning how to be better hunters. Right: These dogs are really playing. This play fighting can help them learn how to be better predators.
    ::左: 这两个狮子幼崽正在玩耍。 它们不仅玩得很开心, 而且还在学习如何成为更好的猎人。 右: 这些狗真的在玩耍。 这种游戏可以帮助他们学会如何成为更好的掠食者。

    Human children learn by playing as well. For example, playing games and sports can help them learn to follow rules and work with others. The toddlers pictured below are playing in the sand ( Figure ). They are learning about the world through play. What do you think they might be learning?
    ::人类儿童也通过游戏学习。例如,游戏和体育可以帮助他们学会遵守规则,与他人一起工作。下面所描绘的幼儿们正在沙中玩(图 ) 。 他们正在通过玩耍来学习世界。 你认为他们可能学到什么?

    Two toddlers play in a sandbox, exploring and learning about their environment.

    Playing in a sandbox is fun for young children. It can also help them learn about the world.
    ::在沙箱里玩对幼童来说是件有趣的事,

    Insight Learning
    ::洞见学习

    Insight learning is learning from past experiences and reasoning. It usually involves coming up with new ways to solve problems. Insight learning generally happens quickly. An animal has a sudden flash of insight. Insight learning requires relatively great intelligence. Human beings use insight learning more than any other species. They have used their intelligence to solve problems ranging from inventing the wheel to flying rockets into space.
    ::洞察学习正在从过去的经验和推理中学习。 它通常涉及提出解决问题的新方法。 洞察学习通常会很快发生。 洞察学习会很快发生。 动物有突然的洞察力。 洞察学习需要相对较高的智慧。 人类比任何其他物种都更多地利用洞察力学习。 他们利用自己的智慧来解决从发明轮子到发射火箭到太空等各种问题。

    Think about problems you have solved. Maybe you figured out how to solve a new type of math problem or how to get to the next level of a video game. If you relied on your past experiences and reasoning to do it, then you were using insight learning.
    ::想想你已经解决了哪些问题。 也许你会想出如何解决新型数学问题,或者如何进入下一级电子游戏。如果你依靠过去的经验和推理来做,那么你就会使用洞察力学习。

    One type of insight learning is making tools to solve problems. Scientists used to think that humans were the only animals intelligent enough to make tools. In fact, tool-making was believed to set humans apart from all other animals.
    ::一种洞察力的学习是制造解决问题的工具。 科学家过去认为人类是唯一聪明的动物来制造工具。 事实上,工具制造被认为把人类与所有其他动物区分开来。

    In 1960, expert Jane Goodall discovered that chimpanzees also make tools. She saw a chimpanzee strip leaves from a twig. Then he poked the twig into a hole in a termite mound. After termites climbed onto the twig, he pulled the twig out of the hole and ate the insects clinging to it. The chimpanzee had made a tool to “fish” for termites. He had used insight to solve a problem. Since then, chimpanzees have been seen making several different types of tools. For example, they sharpen sticks and use them as spears for hunting. They use stones as hammers to crack open nuts.
    ::1960年,专家Jane Goodall发现黑猩猩也制造工具。 她看到一只黑猩猩从树枝上摘下来的条叶子。 然后他把树枝插到白蚁丘的洞里。 在白蚁爬到树枝上之后,他把树枝从洞里拉出来,吃掉紧紧的昆虫。黑猩猩用一种工具来“捕鱼”白蚁。他用洞见识解决问题。从那时起,黑猩猩就用多种不同的工具来制造。例如,他们用棍子磨棍,用它们作为猎枪。他们用石头作为锤子来敲开坚果。

    Scientists have also observed other species of animals making tools to solve problems. A crow was seen bending a piece of wire into a hook. Then the crow used the hook to pull food out of a tube.
    ::科学家们还观察到其他种类的动物在制造工具解决问题。 一只乌鸦被看到把一根铁丝钉在钩子上。 然后乌鸦用钩子把食物从管子上拉出来。

    An example of a gorilla using a walking stick is shown below ( Figure ). Behaviors such as these show that other species of animals can use their experience and reasoning to solve problems. They can learn through insight.
    ::大型猩猩使用手杖的例子见下文(图 ) 。 此类行为表明,其他动物可以使用他们的经验和推理来解决问题。它们可以通过洞察力学习。

    A gorilla using a branch as a tool to catch a fish in swampy water.

    This gorilla is using a branch as a tool. She is leaning on it to keep her balance while she reaches down into swampy water to catch a fish.
    ::这只大猩猩用树枝作为工具 她靠树枝维持平衡

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Learned behavior is behavior that occurs only after experience or practice.
      ::学习行为是只有在经验或实践之后才会发生的行为。
    • Methods of learning include habituation, observational learning, conditioning, play, and insight learning.
      ::学习方法包括习惯、观察学习、调节、游戏和洞察学习。

    Explore More
    ::探索更多

    Use the resources below to answer the questions that follow.
    ::利用以下资源回答以下问题。

    Explore More I
    ::探索更多

    • Octopus Tool Use: The World's Smartest Invertebrate at (1:21)
      ::八花工具使用:世界最聪明的脊椎动物(1:21)

     

    1. What sort of behavior do you feel this octopus is exhibiting? Explain your reasoning fully.
      ::你觉得章鱼展示什么行为?
    2. Do you think this behavior counts as "tool use"? Explain your thinking fully.
      ::你认为这种行为算不算"工具使用"?

    Explore More II
    ::探索更多情况二

    • Octopus Open a Jar at (2:59)
      ::Octopus 打开一个罐(2: 59)

     

    • Octopus Opening Jar at (1:05)
      ::Octopus Actopus 开业日(1:05)

     

    1. The octopi in the above two videos are both opening jars. Observe their behavior closely.
      1. Do you think they are both displaying the same type of learning? Explain your reasoning fully, and be as specific as you can be.
        ::你认为他们是否都展示了相同的学习方式?充分解释你的推理,并尽可能具体。
      2. Do you think the amount of time it takes an octopus to open the jar is reflective of intelligence? Explain your thinking fully.
        ::你认为打开罐子需要多少时间才能打开章鱼?充分解释你的想法。

      ::以上两段视频中的章鱼托皮是开罐。 仔细观察它们的行为。 您认为它们是否都展示了相同的学习类型? 充分解释您的推理, 并尽可能具体。 您认为打开罐子需要多少时间才能打开章鱼托皮? 请充分解释您的想法 。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. What is observational learning? Give an example.
      ::什么是观察学习?举个例子。
    2. What is conditioning?
      ::什么是调节?
    3. Why are some crows not afraid of scarecrows?
      ::为什么有些乌鸦不怕稻草人?
    4. Describe insight learning. Give an example.
      ::描述洞察力学习 举个例子