Course: 1.8 资本主义的历史和当前变化

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资本主义的历史和当前变化

Historical & Current Variations of Capitalism
::资本主义的历史和当前变化

Every country worries about economic growth. In the United States and other high-income countries, the question is whether economic growth continues to provide the same remarkable gains in our standard of living as it did during the twentieth century. Meanwhile, can middle-income countries like South Korea, Brazil, Egypt, or Poland catch up to the higher-income countries? Must they remain in the second-tier of per capita income? Of the world’s population of roughly 6.7 billion people, about 2.6 billion are scraping by on incomes that average less than $2 per day. This is not that different from the standard of living 2,000 years ago. Can the world’s poor be lifted from their fearful poverty? As the 1995 Nobel laureate in economics, Robert E. Lucas Jr., once noted: “The consequences for human welfare involved in questions like these are simply staggering: Once one starts to think about them, it is hard to think about anything else.”
::每一个国家都担心经济增长。在美国和其他高收入国家,问题在于经济增长是否继续像20世纪那样给我们的生活水平带来同样显著的改善。与此同时,中收入国家,如韩国、巴西、埃及或波兰能否赶上高收入国家? 它们必须留在人均收入的第二层吗? 在大约67亿的世界人口中,大约26亿人被平均每天不到2美元的收入所扭曲。这与2000年前的生活水平没有区别。世界上的穷人能否摆脱其可怕的贫困呢? 正如1995年的诺贝尔经济学奖获得者罗伯特·卢卡斯·小詹姆斯(Robert E. Lucas Jr. )曾经指出 : “ 这些问题给人类福利带来的后果是惊人的:一旦开始思考这些问题,就很难思考其它问题了。 ”

Universal Generalizations
::普遍化

Despite a multitude of variations, many countries consider themselves to be capitalist.
::尽管存在多种差异,但许多国家认为自己是资本主义者。

Guiding Questions
::问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问

What significant factors have contributed to a specific country's (for example, Japan's) economic growth and development?
::具体国家(例如日本)的经济增长和发展受到哪些重要因素的推动?

What has been the positive international impact created by additional nations moving toward a free market economy?
::向自由市场经济迈进的更多国家产生了哪些积极的国际影响?

Economic Growth
::经济增长经济增长

Dramatic improvements in a nation’s standard of living are possible. After the Korean War in the late 1950s, the Republic of Korea, often called South Korea, was one of the poorest economies in the world. Most South Koreans worked in peasant agriculture. According to the British economist Angus Maddison, whose life’s work was the measurement of GDP and population in the world economy, GDP per capita in 1990 international dollars was $854 per year. From the 1960s to the early twenty-first century, a time period well within the lifetime and memory of many adults, the South Korean economy grew rapidly. Over these four decades, GDP per capita increased by more than 6% per year. According to the World Bank, GDP for South Korea now exceeds $30,000 in nominal terms, placing it firmly among high-income countries like Italy, New Zealand, and Israel. Measured by total GDP in 2012, South Korea is the thirteenth-largest economy in the world. For a nation of 49 million people, this transformation is extraordinary.
::一国生活水平的大幅改善是可能的。 1950年代末朝鲜战争后,大韩民国(通常被称为韩国)成为世界上最贫穷的经济体之一。大部分南朝鲜人从事农民农业。据英国经济学家安格斯·马迪森(Angus Maddison,他毕生的工作是衡量世界经济的GDP和人口)称,以1990年国际美元计算的人均GDP每年为854美元。从1960年代到21世纪初,许多成年人的一生和记忆中度过了一段时期,南韩经济迅速增长。在这四十多年中,人均GDP每年增长超过6 % 。根据世界银行的数据,韩国的GDP现已超过30,000美元名义价值,稳定在意大利、新西兰和以色列等高收入国家。按2012年GDP总额计算,韩国是世界第13大经济体。对于拥有4,900万人口的国家来说,这一转变是非同寻常的。

South Korea is a standout example, but it is not the only case of rapid and sustained economic growth. Other nations of East Asia like Thailand and Indonesia, have seen very rapid growth as well. China has grown enormously since market-oriented economic reforms were enacted around 1980. GDP per capita in high-income economies like the United States also has grown dramatically albeit over a longer time frame. Since the Civil War, the U.S. economy has been transformed from a primarily rural and agricultural economy to an economy based on services, manufacturing, and technology.
::韩国是一个突出的例子,但它并不是快速和持续的经济增长的唯一例子。东亚其他国家,如泰国和印度尼西亚,也出现了非常迅速的增长。自1980年左右实行面向市场的经济改革以来,中国已经大幅增长。美国等高收入经济体的人均GDP也在较长的时间内大幅增长。自内战以来,美国经济已经从以农村和农业为主的经济转变为以服务业、制造业和技术为基础的经济。

Video: Secrets Behind Korea's Economic Success
::影片:韩国经济成功背后的秘密

The Relatively Recent Arrival of Economic Growth
::相对近期经济增长的到来

Let’s begin with a brief overview of the spectacular patterns of economic growth around the world in the last two centuries. This time period is commonly referred to as the period of modern economic growth. Rapid and sustained economic growth is a relatively recent experience for the human race. Before the last two centuries, although rulers, nobles, and conquerors could afford some extravagances and although economies rose above the subsistence level, the average person’s standard of living had not changed much for centuries.
::首先让我们简要回顾一下过去两个世纪全世界惊人的经济增长模式。这一时期通常被称为现代经济增长的时期。快速和持续的经济增长是人类较近期的经历。在过去两个世纪之前,尽管统治者、贵族和征服者可以承受一些奢侈,尽管经济超过了维持生计的水平,但普通人的生活水平在几个世纪里并没有多大变化。

Progressive, powerful economic and institutional changes started to have a significant effect in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth-centuries. According to the Dutch economic historian Jan Luiten van Zanden, slavery-based societies, favorable demographics, global trading routes, and standardized trading institutions that spread with different empires set the stage for the Industrial Revolution to succeed. The Industrial Revolution refers to the widespread use of power-driven machinery and the economic and social changes that resulted in the first half of the 1800s. Ingenious machines—the steam engine, the power loom, and the steam locomotive—performed tasks that otherwise would have taken vast numbers of workers to complete. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and soon spread to the United States, Germany, and other countries.
::根据荷兰经济历史学家Jan Luiten van Zanden, 以奴役为基础的社会、有利的人口统计、全球贸易路线和标准化的贸易机构,这些都与不同的帝国相扩展,为工业革命的成功奠定了基础。工业革命指的是广泛使用权力驱动的机器以及导致1800年代上半叶的经济和社会变革。创新机器 — — 蒸汽机、电力机头和蒸汽机机,以及否则将让大量工人完成的任务。工业革命始于英国,很快蔓延到美国、德国和其他国家。

The jobs for ordinary people working with these machines were often dirty and dangerous by modern standards, but the alternative jobs of that time in peasant agriculture and small-village industry were often dirty and dangerous, too. The new jobs of the Industrial Revolution typically offered higher pay and a chance for social mobility. A self-reinforcing cycle began: New inventions and investments generated profits, the profits provided funds for new investment and inventions, and the investments and inventions provided opportunities for further profits. Slowly, a group of national economies in Europe and North America emerged from centuries of sluggishness into a period of rapid modern growth. During the last two centuries, the average rate of growth of GDP per capita in the leading industrialized countries has averaged about 2% per year. What were times like before then?
::根据现代标准,使用这些机器的普通人的工作往往是肮脏和危险的,但当时农民农业和小村庄工业的替代工作也是肮脏和危险的。工业革命的新工作通常提供更高的工资和社会流动性的机会。自我强化的周期开始:新的发明和投资产生利润,利润为新的投资和发明提供了资金,投资和发明提供了进一步利润的机会。缓慢地,欧洲和北美的一批国民经济从几个世纪的缓慢发展到一个迅速的现代增长时期。在过去两个世纪中,主要工业化国家的人均GDP平均增长率为每年2%左右。在此之前的时期是什么?

Read the following feature for the answer.
::读取答案的以下特性。

What were economic conditions like before 1870?
::1870年以前的经济状况如何?

Angus Maddison, a quantitative economic historian, led the most systematic inquiry into national incomes before 1870. His methods recently have been refined and used to compile GDP per capita estimates from year 1 C.E. to 1348. 1 is an important counterpoint to most of the narrative in this chapter. It shows that nations can decline as well as rise. The declines in income are explained by a wide array of forces, such as epidemics, natural and weather-related disasters, the inability to govern large empires, and the remarkably slow pace of technological and institutional progress. Institutions are the traditions, laws, and so on by which people in a community agree to behave and govern themselves. Such institutions include marriage, religion, education, and laws of governance. Institutional progress is the development and codification of these institutions to reinforce social order, and thus, economic growth.
::安古斯·马迪森(Angus Maddison)是一位量化经济历史学家,在1870年以前领导了对国民收入的最系统调查。他的方法最近得到改进,并被用于汇编从1 C.E.到1348.1年的人均国内总产值估计数。 1 是对本章大部分叙述的重要反响。它表明,国家可以下降,也可以上升。收入下降的原因有多种因素,如流行病、自然和气候灾害、无法治理大帝国以及技术和机构进步速度非常缓慢。机构是传统、法律,也是社区中人们同意行为和管理自己的传统、法律等等。这些机构包括婚姻、宗教、教育和治理法。体制进步是这些机构的发展和编纂,以加强社会秩序,进而是经济增长。

One example of such an institution is the Magna Carta (Great Charter), which the English nobles forced King John to sign in 1215. The Magna Carta codified the principles of due process, whereby a free man could not be penalized unless his peers had made a lawful judgment against him. This concept was later adopted by the United States in its own constitution. This social order may have contributed to England’s GDP per capita in 1348, which was second to that of northern Italy.
::英国贵族于1215年强迫约翰国王签署《大宪章》,《大宪章》就是这种体制的一个例子。《大宪章》编纂了正当程序原则,即自由人除非其同龄人对其做出合法判决,否则不得受到处罚。这一概念后来被美国在其宪法中采纳。这一社会秩序可能为英国1348年的人均GDP做出了贡献,而后者是意大利北部的第二大。

In the study of economic growth, a country’s institutional framework plays a critical role. 1 also shows relative global equality for almost 1,300 years. After this, we begin to see a significant divergence in income (not shown in table).
::在对经济增长的研究中,一个国家的体制框架发挥着关键作用。 1 也显示了近1300年来相对的全球平等。之后,我们开始看到收入的巨大差异(没有在表格中显示 ) 。

Year ::年份年份	Northern Italy ::意大利北部	Spain ::西班牙西班牙西班牙西班牙西班牙西班牙	England ::英英格兰	Holland ::荷兰荷兰荷兰	Byzantium ::	Iraq ::伊拉克伊拉克伊拉克伊拉克伊拉克伊拉克	Egypt ::埃及埃及埃及埃及埃及	Japan ::日本日本日本日本日本日本日本日本
1	$800	$600	$600	$600	$700	$700	$700	-
730	-	-	-	-	-	$920	$730	$402
1000	-	-	-	-	$600	$820	$600	-
1150	-	-	-	-	$580	$680	$660	$520
1280	-	-	-	-	-	-	$670	$527
1300	$1,588	$864	$892	-	-	-	$610	-
1348	$1,486	$907	$919	-	-	-	-	-

GDP Per Capita Estimates in Current International Dollars from AD 1 to 1348(Source: Bolt and van Zanden. “The First Update of the Maddison Project. Re-Estimating Growth Before 1820.” 2013)
::AD1至1348年按当前国际美元计算的GDP人均资本估计数(资料来源:Bolt和van Zanden,“Maddison项目第一次更新,1820年之前重新估计增长”。

Another fascinating and underreported fact is the high levels of income, compared to others at that time, attained by the Islamic Empire Abbasid Caliphate—which was founded in present-day Iraq in 730 C.E. At its height, the empire spanned large regions of the Middle East, North Africa, and Spain until its gradual decline over 200 years.
::另一个令人着迷和少报的事实是,伊斯兰帝国阿巴西哈里发(Abbasid Caliphate)与当时的其他国家相比,收入水平很高。伊斯兰帝国阿巴希德·哈里发(Abbasid Caliphate)于公元前730年在当今的伊拉克成立。在其高度,该帝国横跨中东、北非和西班牙的大片地区,直至200年来逐渐下降。

The Industrial Revolution led to increasing inequality among nations. Some economies flourished, whereas others, like many of those in Africa or Asia, remained close to a subsistence standard of living. General calculations show that the 17 countries of the world with the most developed economies had, on average, 2.4 times the GDP per capita of the world’s poorest economies in 1870. By 1960, the most developed economies had 4.2 times the GDP per capita of the poorest economies.
::工业革命导致国家间不平等的加剧。有些经济体繁荣,而另一些经济体则像非洲或亚洲的经济体一样,仍然接近于维持生计的生活水平。总体计算表明,世界上17个经济最发达的国家平均在1870年是世界最贫穷经济体人均GDP的2.4倍。到1960年,最发达经济体的人均GDP是最贫穷经济体人均GDP的4.2倍。

However, by the middle of the twentieth century, some countries had shown that catching up was possible. Japan’s economic growth took off in the 1960s and 1970s, with a growth rate of real GDP per capita averaging 11% per year during those decades. Certain countries in Latin America experienced a boom in economic growth in the 1960s as well. In Brazil, for example, GDP per capita expanded by an average annual rate of 11.1% from 1968 to 1973. In the 1970s, some East Asian economies, including South Korea, Thailand, and Taiwan, saw rapid growth. In these countries, growth rates of 11% to 12% per year in GDP per capita were not uncommon. More recently, China, with its population of 1.3 billion people, grew at a per capita rate 9% per year from 1984 into the 2000s. India, with a population of 1.1 billion, has shown promising signs of economic growth, with growth in GDP per capita of about 4% per year during the 1990s and climbing toward 7% to 8% per year in the 2000s.
::然而,到了20世纪中期,一些国家已经表明赶超是可能的。日本的经济增长在1960年代和1970年代有所回升,其实际人均GDP增长率在这些几十年中每年平均为11 % 。拉丁美洲某些国家在1960年代也经历了经济增长的繁荣。比如,在巴西,1968年至1973年人均GDP年均增长率为11.1 % 。 1970年代,包括韩国、泰国和台湾在内的东亚经济体出现了快速增长。在这些国家,人均GDP年增长率为11-12 % , 这并非罕见。最近,中国人口为13亿,从1984年到2000年,每年人均增长率为9 % 。印度人口为11亿,显示出良好的经济增长迹象,20世纪90年代的人均GDP年增长率约为4 % , 2000年代,年人均GDP增长率攀升至7 % 。

These waves of catch-up economic growth have not reached all shores. In certain African countries like Niger, Tanzania, and Sudan, for example, GDP per capita at the start of the 2000s was still less than $300, not much higher than it was in the nineteenth century and for centuries before that. In the context of the overall situation of low-income people around the world, the good economic news from China (population: 1.3 billion) and India (population: 1.1 billion) is, nonetheless, astounding and heartening.
::这些追赶式的经济增长浪潮并没有波及到所有海岸。比如,在尼日尔、坦桑尼亚和苏丹等非洲国家,2000年代初期的人均GDP还不到300美元,没有比十九世纪和十九世纪前几个世纪高得多。在全世界低收入人口的总体状况下,来自中国(人口:13亿)和印度(人口:11亿)的好消息令人吃惊和振奋。

Economic growth in the last two centuries has made a striking change in the human condition. In 2000 Richard Easterlin, an economist at the University of Southern California, wrote:
::过去两个世纪的经济增长使人类状况发生了显著变化。 2000年,南加利福尼亚大学经济学家理查德·伊斯特林写道:

By many measures, a revolution in the human condition is sweeping the world. Most people today are better fed, clothed, and housed than their predecessors two centuries ago. They are healthier, live longer, and are better educated. Women’s lives are less centered on reproduction and political democracy has gained a foothold. Although Western Europe and its offshoots have been the leaders of this advance, most of the less developed nations have joined in during the 20th century, with the newly emerging nations of sub-Saharan Africa the latest to participate. Although the picture is not one of universal progress, it is the greatest advance in the human condition of the world’s population ever achieved in such a brief span of time.
::在许多措施下,人类条件的革命正在席卷世界。如今,大多数人比前几个世纪前几届更富裕、更衣、更衣、更衣、更受教育。妇女的生活不那么以生殖为中心,政治民主也获得了立足之地。尽管西欧及其分支一直是这一进步的领导者,但大多数欠发达国家都在20世纪加入其中,而新兴的撒哈拉以南非洲国家是最新加入的。虽然情况不是普遍进步,但它是世界人口在如此短的时间内取得的最大进步。

Rule of Law and Economic Growth
::法治和经济增长

Economic growth depends on many factors. Key among those factors is adherence to the rule of law and protection of property rights and contractual rights by a country’s government so that markets can work effectively and efficiently. Laws must be clear, public, fair, enforced, and equally applicable to all members of society. Property rights, are the rights of individuals and firms to own property and use it as they see fit. If you have $100, you have the right to use that money, whether you spend it, lend it, or keep it in a jar. It is your property. The definition of property includes physical property as well as the right to your training and experience, especially since your training is what determines your livelihood. The use of this property includes the right to enter into contracts with other parties with your property. Individuals or firms must own the property to enter into a contract.
::经济增长取决于许多因素。这些因素中的关键是坚持法治,由一国政府保护产权和合同权利,以便市场能够有效和高效地运作。法律必须明确、公开、公正、强制执行,并平等地适用于社会所有成员。财产权是个人和公司拥有财产和酌情使用财产的权利。如果拥有100美元,你有权使用这笔钱,无论是花钱、借钱还是把它存放在罐子里。这是你的财产。财产的定义包括物质财产以及接受培训和体验的权利,特别是因为培训决定你的生活。使用这种财产包括有权与拥有财产的其他各方签订合同。个人或公司必须拥有财产才能签订合同。

Contractual rights, then, are based on property rights and they allow individuals to enter into agreements with others regarding the use of their property providing recourse through the legal system in the event of noncompliance. One example is the employment agreement: a skilled surgeon operates on an ill person and expects to get paid. Failure to pay would constitute a theft of property by the patient; that property being the services provided by the surgeon. In a society with strong property rights and contractual rights, the terms of the patient–surgeon contract will be fulfilled because the surgeon would have recourse through the court system to extract payment from that individual. Without a legal system that enforces contracts, people would not be likely to enter into contracts for current or future services because of the risk of non-payment. This would make it difficult to transact business and would slow economic growth.
::因此,契约权利以财产权为基础,允许个人与其他人签订协议,在出现违约时通过法律系统利用自己的财产进行追索,就业协议就是一个例子:熟练的外科医生在病人身上操作,并期望得到付款;不支付将构成病人对财产的盗窃;财产是外科医生提供的服务;在一个拥有强大产权和合同权利的社会中,病人外科医生合同的条件将得以实现,因为外科医生可以通过法院系统从此人那里提取付款。没有执行合同的法律制度,人们不太可能因为不支付风险而签订当前或未来服务的合同。这将使交易困难,并会减缓经济增长。

The World Bank considers a country’s legal system effective if it upholds property rights and contractual rights. The World Bank has developed a ranking system for countries’ legal systems based on effective protection of property rights and rule-based governance using a scale from 1 to 6, with 1 being the lowest and 6 the highest rating. In 2012, the world average ranking was 2.9. The three countries with the lowest ranking of 1.5 were Afghanistan, the Central African Republic, and Zimbabwe; their GDP per capita was $1,000, $800, and $600 respectively. Afghanistan is cited by the World Bank as having a low standard of living, weak government structure, and lack of adherence to the rule of law, which has stymied its economic growth. The landlocked Central African Republic has poor economic resources as well as political instability and is a source of children used in human trafficking. Zimbabwe has had declining growth since 1998. Land redistribution and price controls have disrupted the economy, and corruption and violence have dominated the political process. Although global economic growth has increased, those countries lacking a clear system of property rights and an independent court system free from corruption have lagged far behind.
::世界银行认为,如果一个国家维护财产权和契约权,其法律制度就会有效; 世界银行已经制定了一套基于有效保护财产权和基于规则的治理的国家法律制度的等级制度,其等级从1级到6级,其中1级最低,6级最高; 2012年,世界平均排名为2.9; 排名最低的3个国家为阿富汗、中非共和国和津巴布韦,排名最低的1.5;人均国内生产总值分别为1 000美元、800美元和600美元; 世界银行称阿富汗的生活水平低,政府结构薄弱,缺乏法治,阻碍了其经济增长; 内陆中非共和国经济资源贫乏,政治不稳定,是用于贩运人口的儿童的来源; 津巴布韦自1998年以来增长下降; 土地重新分配和价格控制扰乱了经济,腐败和暴力在政治进程中占主导地位。尽管全球经济增长有所增长,但缺乏明确的财产权制度和没有腐败的独立法院制度的国家却远远落后。

Since the early nineteenth century, there has been a spectacular process of long-run economic growth during which the world’s leading economies—mostly those in Western Europe and North America—expanded GDP per capita at an average rate of about 2% per year. In the last half-century, countries like Japan, South Korea, and China have shown the potential to catch up. The extensive process of economic growth, often referred to as modern economic growth, was facilitated by the Industrial Revolution, which increased worker productivity and trade, as well as the development of governance and market institutions.
::自十九世纪初以来,出现了一个令人瞩目的长期经济增长进程,在此期间,世界主要经济体 — — 主要是西欧和北美经济体 — — 每年人均GDP平均增长率约为2%左右。在过去半个世纪中,日本、韩国和中国等国家表现出了追赶潜力。工业革命促进了经济增长的广泛进程(通常被称为现代经济增长 ) , 提高了工人生产率和贸易以及治理和市场体制的发展。

The Diversity of Countries and Economies across the World

The national economies that make up the global economy are remarkably diverse. Let us use one key indicator of the standard of living, GDP per capita, to quantify this diversity. You will quickly see that quantifying this diversity is fraught with challenges and limitations. As explained in The Macroeconomic Perspective, we must consider using purchasing power parity or “international dollars” to convert average incomes into comparable units. Purchasing power parity, as formally defined in Exchange Rates and International Capital Flows, takes into account the fact that prices of the same good are different across countries.
::构成全球经济的国民经济是多种多样的。让我们使用生活水平的一个关键指标,即人均国内生产总值来量化这一多样性。你将很快看到,量化这一多样性充满挑战和限制。正如宏观经济观点所解释的那样,我们必须考虑使用购买力平价或“国际美元”来将平均收入转换为可比单位。汇率和国际资本流动中正式界定的购买力平价考虑到同一商品的价格在各国之间是不同的这一事实。

The Macroeconomic Perspective explained how to measure GDP, the challenges of using GDP to compare standards of living, and the difficulty of confusing economic size with distribution. In China's case, for example, China ranks as the second largest global economy, second to only the United States, with Japan being third. But, when we take China's GDP of $9.2 trillion and divide it by its population of 1.4 billion, then the per capita GDP is only $6,900, which is significantly lower than that of Japan, at $38,500, and that of the United States, at $52,800. Measurement issues aside, it’s worth repeating that the goal, then, is to not only increase GDP, but to strive toward increased GDP per capita to increase overall standards of living for individuals. As we have learned from Economic Growth, this can be achieved at the national level by designing policies that increase worker productivity, deepen capital, and advance technology.
::《宏观经济视角》解释了如何衡量GDP,使用GDP来比较生活水平的挑战,以及将经济规模与分布相混淆的困难。比如,在中国的例子中,中国排名第二大全球经济,仅次于美国,日本排名第三。但是,当我们把中国的GDP9.2万亿美元(9.2万亿美元 ) , 将其除以14亿人口时,人均GDP只有6,900美元,大大低于日本,38,500美元,美国则为52,800美元。光是衡量问题,值得重复的是,这一目标不仅在于提高GDP,而且在于努力提高人均GDP,以提高个人的总体生活水平。正如我们从经济增长中汲取的教训,通过制定提高工人生产率、深化资本和先进技术的政策,这可以在国家一级实现。

GDP per capita also allows us to rank countries into high-, middle-, or low-income groups. Low-income countries are those with $1,025 per capita GDP per year; middle-income countries have a per capita GDP between $1,025 and $12,475; while high-income countries have over $12,475 per year per capita income. As seen in Table 2 and Figure 1, high-income countries earn 68% of world income but represent just 12% of the global population. Low-income countries earn 1% of total world income but represent 18.5% of global population.
::人均GDP也使我们能够将国家排在高、中等或低收入组别中。低收入国家是年人均GDP为1 025美元的国家;中等收入国家的人均GDP在1 025美元到12 475美元之间;而高收入国家人均收入在12 475美元以上。如表2和图1所示,高收入国家赚取了世界收入的68%,但仅占全球人口的12%。低收入国家占世界总收入的1%,但占全球人口的18.5%。

Ranking based on GDP/capita ::根据国内生产总值/资本排列的排名	GDP (in billions) ::国内生产总值(十亿)	% of Global GDP ::占全球国内生产总值%	Population ::人口人口人口	% of Global Population ::占全球人口百分比
Low income ($1,025 or less) ::低收入(1 025美元或以下)	$612.7	0.8%	848,700,000	11.8%
Middle income ($1,025 - $12,475) ::中等收入(1 025美元 - 12 475美元)	$23,930	31.7%	4,970,000,000	69.4%
High income (more than $12,475) ::高收入(超过12 475美元)	$51,090,000,000	67.5%	1,306,000,000	18.8%
World Total income ::世界总收入	$75,592,941		7,162,119,434

World Income versus Global Population
Source:http://databank.worldbank.org/data/views/reports/tableview.aspx?isshared=true&ispopular=series&pid=20)

(Source:

The pie charts show the GDP (from 2011) for countries categorized into low, middle, or high income. Low-income are those earning less than $1,025 (less than 1% of global income). They represent 18.5% of the world population. Middle-income countries are those with per capita income of $1,025–$12,475 (31.1% of global income). They represent 69.5% of world population. High-income countries have 68.3% of global income and 12% of the world’s population.
::馅饼图表显示了按低收入、中等收入或高收入分类的国家的GDP(自2011年起 ) 。低收入者收入不到1 025美元(不到全球收入的1 % ) 。他们占世界人口的18.5%。中等收入国家人均收入为1 025美元 — — 12 475美元(占全球收入的31.1%)。它们占世界人口的69.5 % 。高收入国家占全球收入的68.3%和世界人口的12 % 。

An overview of the regional averages of GDP per person for developing countries, measured in comparable international dollars as well as the population in 2008 (Figure 2), shows that the differences across these regions are stark. As Table 3 shows, nominal GDP per capita in 2012 for the 581.4 million people living in Latin America and the Caribbean region was $9,190, which far exceeds that of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. In turn, people in the high-income nations of the world, such as those who live in the European Union nations or North America, have a per capita GDP three to four times that of the people of Latin America. To put things in perspective, North America and the European Union have slightly more than 9% of the world’s population, but they produce and consume close to 70% of the world’s GDP.
::以可比国际美元和2008年人口(图2)衡量的发展中国家人均GDP区域平均数概览显示,这些区域的差异十分明显。如表3所示,2012年生活在拉丁美洲和加勒比地区的5.814亿人的名义人均GDP为9,190美元,远远超过南亚和撒哈拉以南非洲。反过来,世界高收入国家的人口,如生活在欧盟国家或北美的人口,人均GDP是拉丁美洲人口的3至4倍。简言之,北美和欧盟的人均GDP略高于世界人口的9 % , 但他们生产和消费了世界GDP的近70 % 。

There is a clear imbalance in the GDP across the world. North America, Australia, and Western Europe have the highest GDPs while large areas of the world have dramatically lower GDPs. (Credit: modification of work by Bsrboy/Wikimedia Commons)
::全世界国内生产总值明显失衡。北美、澳大利亚和西欧的国内生产总值最高,而世界大部分地区的国内生产总值则大幅下降。 (信贷:Bsrboy/维基媒体公域对工作的修改)

	Population in Millions GDP Per Capita ::人均国内生产总值(百万)
East Asia and Pacific ::东亚和太平洋	2,006	$5,536
South Asia ::南亚	1,671	$1,482
Sub-Saharan Africa ::撒哈拉以南非洲	936.1	$1,657
Latin America and Caribbean ::拉丁美洲和加勒比	588	$9,536
Middle East and North Africa ::中东和北非	345.4	$3,456
Europe and Central Asia ::欧洲和中亚	272.2	$7,118

Regional Comparisons of Nominal GDP per Capita and Population in 2013(Source:

Such comparisons between regions are admittedly rough. After all, per capita GDP cannot fully capture the quality of life. Many other factors have a large impact on the standard of living, like health, education, human rights, crime and personal safety, and environmental quality. These measures also reveal very wide differences in the standard of living across the regions of the world. Much of this is correlated with per capita income, but there are exceptions. For example, life expectancy at birth in many low-income regions approximates those who are more affluent. The data also illustrate that nobody can claim to have perfect standards of living. For instance, despite very high-income levels, there is still undernourishment in Europe and North America.
::诚然,各区域之间的这种比较是粗略的,毕竟,人均国内生产总值不能完全反映生活质量,许多其他因素,如卫生、教育、人权、犯罪和人身安全以及环境质量,对生活水平有重大影响,这些措施还表明,世界各区域的生活水平差异很大,其中大部分与人均收入有关,但有一些例外,例如,许多低收入区域的出生时预期寿命接近较富裕的人群。数据还表明,没有人可以声称生活水平是完美的。例如,尽管收入水平很高,欧洲和北美仍然营养不良。

The differences in economic statistics and other measures of well-being, substantial though they are, do not fully capture the reasons for the enormous differences between countries. Aside from the neoclassical determinants of growth, four additional determinants are significant in a wide range of statistical studies and are worth mentioning: geography, demography, industrial structure, and institutions.
::经济统计和其他福祉衡量标准的差异虽然很大,但并未充分反映出国家之间巨大差异的原因。除了新古典的增长决定因素外,还有四个决定因素在广泛的统计研究中具有重大意义,值得一提:地理、人口、工业结构和机构。

Geographic and Demographic Differences
::地理和人口差异

Countries have geographic differences: some have extensive coastlines, some are landlocked. Some have large rivers that have been a path of commerce for centuries, or mountains that have been a barrier to trade. Some have deserts, some have rain forests. These differences create different positive and negative opportunities for commerce, health, and the environment.
::有些国家存在地理差异:有些国家有广阔的海岸线,有些国家是内陆国;有些国家有大河流,数百年来一直是通商的道路,有些是阻碍贸易的山区;有些国家有沙漠,有些有雨林;这些差异为商业、健康和环境创造了不同的积极和消极机会。

Countries also have considerable differences in the age distribution of the population. Many high-income nations are approaching a situation by 2020 or so in which the elderly will form a much larger share of the population. Most low-income countries still have a higher proportion of youth and young adults, but by about 2050, the elderly populations in these low-income countries are expected to boom as well. These demographic changes will have a considerable impact on the standard of living of the young and the old.
::许多高收入国家正在接近2020年左右老年人占人口比例大得多的局面,大多数低收入国家的青年和青年成年人比例仍然较高,但到2050年左右,这些低收入国家的老年人人口预计也将繁荣,这些人口变化将对青年和老年人的生活水平产生相当大的影响。

Differences in Industry Structure and Economic Institutions
::工业结构和经济体制的差异

Countries have differences in industry structure. In the high-income economies of the world, only about 2% of GDP comes from agriculture; the average for the rest of the world is 12%. Countries have strong differences in degree of urbanization.
::各国在工业结构上存在差异。在世界高收入经济体中,只有约2%的国内生产总值来自农业;世界其他地区的平均水平为12 % 。各国的城市化程度差异很大。

Countries also have strong differences in economic institutions: some nations have economies that are extremely market-oriented, while other nations have command economies. Some nations are open to international trade, while others use tariffs and import quotas to limit the impact of trade. Some nations are torn by long-standing armed conflicts; other nations are largely at peace. There are differences in political, religious, and social institutions as well.
::各国在经济体制方面也存在巨大差异:有些国家的经济极其面向市场,而另一些国家则拥有指挥经济;有些国家对国际贸易开放,另一些国家则使用关税和进口配额限制贸易的影响;有些国家因长期武装冲突而四分五裂;另一些国家基本上处于和平状态;政治、宗教和社会机构也存在差异。

No nation intentionally aims for a low standard of living, high rates of unemployment and inflation, or an unsustainable trade imbalance. However, nations will differ in their priorities and in the situations in which they find themselves, and so their policy choices can reasonably vary, too. The next modules will discuss how nations around the world, from high income to low income, approach the four macroeconomic goals of economic growth, low unemployment, low inflation, and a sustainable balance of trade.
::没有哪个国家会有意地追求低生活水平、高失业率和高通货膨胀率或不可持续的贸易不平衡。但是,各国的优先事项和所处环境会有所不同,因此它们的政策选择也会有合理的差异。接下来的模块将讨论世界各国从高收入到低收入如何实现经济增长、低失业率、低通胀以及可持续贸易平衡的四大宏观经济目标。

Macroeconomic policy goals for most countries strive toward low levels of unemployment and inflation, as well as stable trade balances. Countries are analyzed based on their GDP per person and ranked as low-, middle-, and high-income countries. Low-income are those earning less than $1,025 (less than 1%) of global income. They currently have 18.5% of the world population. Middle-income countries are those with per capita income of $1,025–$12,475 (31.1% of global income). They have 69.5% of world population. High-income countries are those with per capita income greater than $12,475 (68.3% of global income). They have 12% of the world’s population. Regional comparisons tend to be inaccurate because even countries within those regions tend to differ from each other.
::大多数国家的宏观经济政策目标是降低失业率和通胀水平,并实现稳定的贸易平衡。对各国的分析以人均GDP为基础,并按低、中、高收入国家排列。低收入是收入低于全球收入1 025美元(不到1 % ) 的国家。目前,它们占世界人口的18.5%。中等收入国家是人均收入为1 025美元至12 475美元(占全球收入的31.1%)的国家。它们占世界人口的69.5%。高收入国家是人均收入超过12 475美元(占全球收入的68.3%)的国家。它们占世界人口的12 % 。区域比较往往不准确,因为这些地区的国家往往各不相同。

Answer the self check questions below to monitor your understanding of the concepts in this section.
::回答下面的自我核对问题,以监测你对本节概念的理解。

Self Check Questions
::自查问题

1. Go online and research the Japanese economy. Identify some of the similarities and differences between the U.S. and Japan. Who do you believe has a stronger economy? Why? Defend your answer.
::1. 上网研究日本经济,找出美国和日本之间的一些相似之处和不同之处,认为谁的经济更强大?为什么?捍卫你的回答。

2. Go online and research one of the Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea). Why are they called Asian Tigers? How are their economies compared to other Asian nations and the U.S.?
::2. 上网研究一个亚洲虎(香港、新加坡、台湾、韩国),它们为何被称为亚洲虎?与其他亚洲国家和美国相比,它们的经济如何?

Section outline

General

资本主义的历史和当前变化

Historical & Current Variations of Capitalism ::资本主义的历史和当前变化

Economic Growth ::经济增长 经济增长

The Relatively Recent Arrival of Economic Growth ::相对近期经济增长的到来

What were economic conditions like before 1870? ::1870年以前的经济状况如何?

Rule of Law and Economic Growth ::法治和经济增长

Geographic and Demographic Differences ::地理和人口差异

Differences in Industry Structure and Economic Institutions ::工业结构和经济体制的差异

Self Check Questions ::自查问题