10.2 现代中国的兴起(2天)
章节大纲
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Chapter Challenges
::章次 挑战-
Summarize the main steps China has taken to transition from a strict Communist country established in 1949 to a more open society with a capitalist type of economy today.
::总结中国为从1949年建立的严格共产主义国家过渡到当今资本主义型经济的开放型社会所采取的主要步骤。 -
Outline the location of the political units of China with the autonomous regions and special administrative units.
::概述中国政治单位、自治区和特别行政单位的位置。 -
Establish the connection between the autonomous regions and ethnicity.
::建立自治区与族裔之间的联系。 -
Understand the population dynamics of China. Learn about the one-child-only policy and evaluate how it has affected Chinese society and culture.
::了解中国的人口动态,了解独生子女政策,评估其如何影响中国社会和文化。 -
Describe how China has shifted its economic policies and structure in the past few decades.
::描述中国在过去几十年中是如何改变经济政策和结构的。 -
Outline the changes in economic development with China’s open door to Western trade.
::中国向西方贸易敞开大门,由此勾画出经济发展的变化。 -
Sketch out the historical geopolitical objectives of China and how they relate to China today.
::阐述中国的历史地缘政治目标,以及它们与中国今天的关系。
Student Learning Objectives
::学生学习目标TEKS Regional Unit 10 East and Southeast Asia: Chapter 10.2 Emergence of Modern China
::TEKS 东亚和东南亚第十10区域股:中国现代新出现第10.2章WG.1A Analyze the effects of physical and human geographic patterns and processes on the past and describe their impact on the present, including significant physical features and environmental conditions that influenced migration patterns and shaped the distribution of culture groups today.
::WG.1A 分析物理和人类地理模式和过程对过去的影响,并描述其对目前的影响,包括影响移徙模式并影响当今文化群体分布的重要物理特征和环境条件。WG.2A Describe the human and physical characteristics of the same regions at different periods of time to evaluate relationships between past events and current conditions.
::WG.2A 描述不同时期同一区域的人的和自然的特征,以评估过去事件与当前状况之间的关系。WG.5A Analyze how the character of a place is related to its political, economic, social, and cultural elements.
::WG.5A 分析一个地方的特性如何与其政治、经济、社会和文化因素相关。WG.6A Locate and describe human and physical features that influence the size and distribution of settlements.
::WG.6A 确定并描述影响定居点规模和分布的人文和物理特征。WG.6B Explain the processes that have caused changes in settlement patterns, including urbanization, transportation, access to and availability of resources, and economic activities.
::WG.6B 解释导致住区模式变化的进程,包括城市化、运输、获得和获得资源以及经济活动。WG.7A Construct and analyze population pyramids and use other data, graphics, and maps to describe the population characteristics of different societies and to predict future population trends.
::WG.7A 建立并分析人口金字塔,利用其他数据、图表和地图描述不同社会的人口特征,并预测未来人口趋势。WG.7C Describe trends in world population growth and distribution.
::WG.7C 描述世界人口增长和分布的趋势。WG.9A Identify physical and/or human factors such as climate, vegetation, language, trade networks, political units, river systems, and religion that constitute a region.
::WG.9A 查明构成区域的自然和/或人类因素,如气候、植被、语言、贸易网络、政治单位、河流系统和宗教。WG.10A Describe the forces that determine the distribution of goods and services in free enterprise, socialist, and communist economic systems.
::WG.10A 描述决定自由企业、社会主义和共产主义经济体系中货物和服务分配的势力。WG.10B Classify where specific countries fall along the economic spectrum between free enterprise and communism.
::WG.10B 将特定国家属于自由企业和共产主义之间经济范畴的领域分类。WG.13A Interpret maps to explain the division of land, including man-made and natural borders, into separate political units such as cities, states, or countries.
::WG.13A 解释地图,解释土地划分,包括人造边界和自然边界,分为不同的政治单位,如城市、州或国家。WG.14A Analyze current events to infer the physical and human processes that lead to the formation of boundaries and other political divisions.
::WG.14A 分析当前事件,以推断导致形成边界和其他政治分裂的物质和人类过程。WG.14C Analyze the human and physical factors that influence the power to control territory and resources, create conflict/war, and impact international political relations of sovereign nations such as China.
::WG.14C 分析影响控制领土和资源的权力、制造冲突/战争以及影响中国等主权国家国际政治关系的人力和物质因素。WG.18A Analyze cultural changes in specific regions caused by migration, war, trade, innovations, and diffusion.
::WG.18A 分析移徙、战争、贸易、创新和传播在特定区域造成的文化变化。WG.18C Identify examples of cultures that maintain traditional ways, including traditional economies.
::WG.18C 查明保持传统方式的文化实例,包括传统经济。WG.18D Evaluate the spread of cultural traits to find examples of cultural convergence and divergence such as the spread of democratic ideas.
::WG.18D 评价文化特征的传播情况,以寻找文化趋同和差异的例子,如民主思想的传播。WG.21B Locate places of contemporary geopolitical significance on a map.
::WG.21B 在地图上标出具有当代地缘政治意义的地点。WG.22C Use geographic terminology correctly.
::WG.22C 正确使用地理术语。WG.22D Use standard grammar, spelling, sentence structure, and punctuation.
::WG.22D 使用标准语法、拼写、句子结构和标点。Emergence of Modern China
::现代中国的崛起China Modernizes
::中国现代化China is the world’s largest Communist country. Isolated from Europeans and Central Asians by the Himalayas and other high mountain ranges, Chinese culture has endured for thousands of years. Rich in history, adventure, and intrigue, a tour through China would reveal a people with a deep, longstanding love of the land, traditions as old as recorded history, and a spirit of commerce and hard work that sustains them to this day.
::中国是世界上最大的共产主义国家。 喜马拉雅山和其他高山山脉与欧洲和中亚相隔绝,中国文化经历了数千年之久。 中国历史、冒险和阴谋丰富,中国之旅将揭示对土地有着深厚、长期的热爱、历史悠久的传统、商业和辛勤劳动精神的民族,直到今天。The form of Communism promoted by Mao Zedong was not the same as the type of Communism practiced in the Soviet Union. Various Communist experiments were forced upon the Chinese people, with disastrous results. For example, in 1958, the Great Leap Forward was announced. In this program, people were divided into communes, and peasant armies were to work the land while citizens were asked to donate their pots and pans to produce scrap metal and increase the country’s industrial output. The goal was to improve productivity and increase efficiency. The opposite occurred, and millions of Chinese died of starvation during this era.
::毛泽东推行的共产主义形式与苏联实行的共产主义形式不同。 各种共产主义实验都强加在中国人民身上,导致灾难性后果。 比如,1958年,大跃进宣布了。 在这个项目中,人们被划分为乡镇,农民军队要耕种土地,而公民则被要求捐出锅和锅来生产废金属并增加国家的工业产出。 目标是提高生产力并提高效率。 相反,在那个时代,数百万中国人死于饥饿。Another disaster began in 1966 and continued until Mao died in 1976. The Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution wreaked havoc on four thousand years of Chinese traditional culture in a purge of elitism and a drive toward total loyalty to the Communist Party. Armies of indoctrinated students were released into the countryside and the cities to report anyone opposing the party line.
::另一场灾难始于1966年,一直持续到1976年毛泽东去世。 伟大的无产阶级文化革命在四千年的中国传统文化中大肆摧毁了四千年的精英风光和对共产党的完全忠诚。 受过教化的学生军团被释放到农村和城市,报告任何反对该党线的人。Schools were closed, universities were attacked, and intellectuals were killed. Anyone suspected of subversion might be tortured into signing a confession. Violence, anarchy, and economic disaster followed this onslaught of anti-Democratic terror. Estimates vary, but most sources indicate that about 30 million people lost their lives during the Mao Zedong era through purges, starvation, and conflict.
::任何涉嫌颠覆的人都可能被折磨签署认罪书。 暴力、无政府状态和经济灾难是在反民主恐怖的冲击之后发生的。 各种估计各不相同,但大多数来源都表明,在毛泽东时代,大约有3000万人因清洗、饥饿和冲突而丧生。During the early decades of Communism in China, all travel into or out of China was severely restricted by the so-called Bamboo Curtain. The United States had backed the nationalist movement during the Chinese Civil War and continued to support Chiang Kai-shek in Formosa (Taiwan). The United States did not recognize Communist China. The US embassy was in Taiwan, not in Beijing.
::在中国共产主义的最初几十年中,所有进出中国的旅行都受到所谓的“竹幕”的严格限制。 美国在中国内战期间支持民族主义运动,并继续支持在福摩萨(台湾)的蒋介石。 美国不承认共产中国。 美国大使馆在台湾,而不是北京。As China was experiencing its disastrous experiments with Communism, the core economic areas of the world were advancing with commercial technology and high-tech electronics and sending rockets to the moon. China lagged behind in its industrial activities and became a country based on agriculture. A visit to China by US president Richard Nixon in 1972 signaled the opening of diplomatic relations with the United States and was also viewed as a Cold War move against the Soviet Union.
::中国正在经历其与共产主义的灾难性实验,世界核心经济地区正在通过商业技术和高科技电子技术进步,并向月球发射火箭。 中国工业活动落后,成为农业国家。 1972年美国总统尼克松访问中国标志着与美国外交关系的开始,也被视为一场反对苏联的冷战运动。The Chinese Communist Party’s approach when it took power was to institute a “planned economy.” A planned economy, sometimes called a command economy, stands in marked contrast to a market economy. In a planned economy, the government controls all aspects of the economy, including what goods and products should be produced, how much of each should be produced, how products will be sold or distributed and for what (if any) price, who should have jobs and what jobs they should have, how much people will be paid, and all other decisions related to the economy.
::中国共产党掌权时的策略是建立一个“计划经济 ” 。 计划经济,有时被称为指令经济,与市场经济形成鲜明对比。 在计划经济中,政府控制经济的所有方面,包括哪些商品和产品应该生产,应该生产多少产品,产品将如何销售或分配,价格(如果有的话)如何,谁应该有工作,应该有什么样的工作,谁应该有什么样的工作,谁应该有多少钱,谁应该有多少报酬,以及所有其他与经济有关的决定。In a planned economy, businesses are nationalized. That is, businesses are owned by the government rather than by any private entity. By contrast, in a market economy, businesses are privately owned, and most decisions are driven by consumer and investor behavior.
::在计划经济中,企业被国有化。 也就是说,企业归政府所有,而不是由任何私人实体所有。 相反,在市场经济中,企业是私有的,大多数决定都受消费者和投资者行为的驱动。The decade of the 1980s was a transition for China in that there was a shift of focus from China’s Communist economy to a more market-oriented economy. The economic collapse of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s coincided with the opening of China to trade with the West. In 1992, China announced that it would transition to a socialist market economy, a hybrid of a Communist-planned economy and a market economy.
::20世纪80年代的十年对中国来说是一个转型,因为重点从中国共产主义经济转向更面向市场的经济。 1990年代初苏联的经济崩溃正值中国向西方贸易开放之时。 1992年,中国宣布将转向社会主义市场经济、共产主义计划经济和市场经济的混合体。A series of statements by China’s political leaders suggested that in order for China to enjoy a more mature form of socialism, greater national wealth was needed. They further indicated that socialism and poverty should not be considered synonymous and that the country was ready to turn its attention to increasing the wealth and quality of life of its citizens.
::中国政治领导人的一系列声明表明,为了让中国享受更成熟的社会主义形式,需要更大的民族财富。 他们进一步指出,社会主义和贫困不应被视为同义词,中国愿意将注意力转向增加公民的财富和生活质量。During the next decade, China experienced enormous growth in its economy. At the beginning of this century, China was ranked in the top five of the world’s largest trading nations, joining ranks with the United States, Germany, Japan, and France. The sheer size of China’s population contributes to the magnitude of its economy. This does not, however, mean that most of China’s population has a high standard of living.
::在下个十年中,中国经济经历了巨大的增长。 在本世纪初,中国名列世界最大贸易国前五位,与美国、德国、日本和法国相联。 中国人口规模之大对中国经济的规模起了推波助澜的作用。 但这并不意味着中国大部分人口生活水平高。Political Units
::政治政治单位China can be divided into regions utilizing various criteria: political regions, economic regions, natural regions, and climatic regions to name a few. The Communist government of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) is made up of a number of types of political units. The main region of China Proper includes 22 provinces, including the island province of Hainan in the south. The island formerly known as Formosa, now called Taiwan, is considered by China to be its twenty-third province but in actuality remains under its own government—the Republic of China (ROC).
::中华人民共和国共产主义政府(PRC)由多种政治单位组成,中国的主要地区包括22个省,包括南部的海南岛省。 原称“台湾”的福摩萨岛被中国视为其第23个省,但实际上仍由中国政府(中华民国(ROC))管理。Mainland China includes five autonomous regions, each with a designated minority group; four municipalities; and two special administrative regions (SARs) that hold considerable autonomy. All but Taiwan are included in the region called mainland China, except the SARs Hong Kong and Macau.
::中国大陆包括五个自治区,每个自治区都有一个指定的少数群体;四个市和两个拥有相当自治权的特别行政区(SARs),除台湾外,所有台湾都包括在被称为中国大陆的地区,香港特别行政区和澳门除外。The autonomous regions exist as a kind of a compromise between China and the regions that would prefer to be totally independent and that have large non-Han or ethnic minority populations. These five autonomous regions are Tibet, Guangxi, Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, and Ningxia. It should be noted that “autonomous” is how China would describe these regions, but that description is arguable. In reality, the autonomous regions have very little legal ability to govern themselves.
::自治区是中国与那些希望完全独立、拥有大量非汉族或少数民族人口的自治区之间的一种妥协,这五个自治区是西藏、广西、新疆、内蒙古和宁夏,应该指出,“自治”是中国如何描述这些地区的,但这种描述是可以论证的,实际上,自治区几乎没有管理自己的法律能力。Four of China’s cities have governance structures that are roughly on par with that of the provinces. The directly controlled municipalities are Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing and encompass large geographic areas well beyond the city limits, including towns, villages, and rural areas.
::中国四个城市的治理结构大致与各省相同。 直接控制的城市是北京、天津、上海和重庆,覆盖了远在城市界限之外的大片地理区域,包括城镇、乡村和农村地区。The two SARs of China are Hong Kong and Macau. Hong Kong was part of the British Empire and later a British protectorate until its governance reverted to China in 1997. Known informally under Chinese law as “one country, two systems,” Hong Kong and Macau are guaranteed a great degree of autonomy for at least the first 50 years after the transfer from Britain to China. China is responsible for defense and some portions of foreign affairs, while Hong Kong and Macau are responsible for most other matters of state, including their legal systems, law enforcement, immigration laws, monetary systems, customs policies, and others.
::中国的两个特区是香港和澳门。 香港是大英帝国的一部分,后来成为英国保护国,直到1997年其治理恢复到中国为止。 根据中国法律,香港和澳门在从英国向中国转移后至少头50年中,至少在“一国两制”被非正式地称为“一国两制 ” 。 中国负责国防和部分外交事务,而香港和澳门则负责大部分其他的国家事务,包括法律制度、执法、移民法、货币制度、海关政策等。
China and its administrative divisions, including autonomous regions, municipalities, and SARs
::中国及其行政区划,包括自治区、市、特区
China’s Communist government is controlled by the Chinese Communist Party, which is protected and guaranteed power by the country’s constitution. Compared to the more open democratic political systems of Western Europe and North America, China is considered an authoritarian state, complete with heavy restrictions on the Internet, the press, freedom of assembly, reproductive rights, and freedom of religion. Economic trade with the West has created more openness with travel and business, which has begun to challenge or erode the hard-line politics of decades past.
::中国共产党政府受中国宪法保护和保障权力的中国共产党控制。 与西欧和北美更加开放的民主政治制度相比,中国被视为独裁国家,对互联网、新闻、集会自由、生殖权利和宗教自由实行严厉限制。 与西方的经济贸易在旅行和商业方面创造了更加开放的开放,这已开始挑战或侵蚀过去几十年的强硬政治。The People
::人民人民Population
::人口人口 人口With 4,000 years of culture to build on, China continues to press forward into the 21st century. In 2010, China had more people than any other country in the world, about 1.33 billion. Most of its people live in China Proper, in the eastern regions of the country. China Proper has the best agricultural lands in the country, the most fertile river basins, and the most moderate climates. For perspective, China has over one billion more people than the United States, with most of those people living in the southeastern portion of China. During Mao’s time, there was little concern for population growth, but in recent decades China has implemented measures to deal with its teeming population.
::中国有4000年的文化基础,中国继续推进到21世纪。 2010年,中国人口比世界任何其他国家都多,约为13.3亿。中国大部分人口居住在中国东部地区。中国拥有国内最好的农田、最肥沃的河川流域和最温和的气候。从观点看,中国比美国多10亿人口,其中多数人生活在中国东南部。在毛泽东时代,中国对人口增长没有什么担忧,但近几十年来,中国实施了应对人口众多问题的措施。The government of China has taken the responsibility to address its growing population and the country’s ability to provide for the needs of the additional populace. In 1978, China implemented the one-child-only statute, limiting family size to one child. The policy allows for exemptions under certain conditions. Couples living in rural areas and people of minority status are two examples of exempted conditions and may be permitted more than one child, especially if the first child is a girl. Peripheral administrative regions like Macau and Hong Kong are exempt.
::中国政府承担了应对人口增长和满足更多人口需求的能力的责任。 1978年,中国实施了一胎一胎的法规,将家庭规模限制在一胎。 该政策允许在某些条件下免除责任。 居住在农村地区的夫妇和少数民族是两个免责条件的例子,可以允许一个以上孩子,特别是第一个孩子是女孩时。 澳门和香港等周边行政区可以免除责任。The one-child-only policy was implemented in an attempt to address environmental, economic, and social issues related to population growth. This policy has helped reduce China’s potential population by hundreds of millions of people, but the controversial policy has not been easy to implement or make effective. There are growing concerns regarding the policy’s negative impact on society. In response to the one-child-only policy, there have been reports of female infanticide and a higher number of abortions. However, surveys taken by independent agencies indicate that about three-fourths of China’s population supports it.
::单生子女政策的实施是为了解决与人口增长有关的环境、经济和社会问题,该政策有助于将中国潜在人口减少数亿人,但有争议的政策并不容易实施或产生效果。 人们日益关注该政策对社会的负面影响。 针对这一单生子女政策,有报道说有杀害女婴和堕胎数量增加。 然而,独立机构的调查表明,中国四分之三的人口支持这一政策。Economic incentives pressure families to abide by the one-child-only policy. Government benefits and social programs offer incentives that may be lost if couples have more than one child. Enforcement of the policy has been left to the provincial authorities with varying levels of success. Parents eager to have a boy to carry on the family name might abort a female baby. Though now illegal, the use of ultrasound equipment to determine the gender of a fetus is widespread.
::经济刺激措施迫使家庭遵守独生子女政策,政府福利和社会方案提供奖励措施,如果夫妇有一个以上子女,可能会失去这些奖励措施。政策的执行由省当局负责,其成功程度不同。父母渴望让男孩继承姓氏,可能会使女婴流产。虽然现在是非法的,但使用超声波设备确定胎儿性别的现象很普遍。Some provinces in China have a severe shortage of women because of the policy. Men in provinces where women are scarce may have to migrate to find a wife. In China, there are more boys born than girls. The ratio averages more than 10 percent more boys than girls, with some provinces reaching more than 25 percent. This imbalance creates cultural issues that may have a negative impact on traditional society. Conventional society is challenged when there are a large number of unmarried young men in an area that may not have adequate employment opportunities for them or available women for potential marriage.
::中国一些省因政策而严重缺少妇女,在妇女稀少的省份,男子可能不得不移徙寻找妻子,在中国,男孩比女孩多,男孩平均比女孩多10%以上,有些省比女孩多25%以上,这种不平衡造成了文化问题,可能对传统社会产生消极影响,传统社会遇到挑战,因为许多未婚青年男子在她们或妇女可能没有适当就业机会的地方,或者妇女可能结婚。
Age structure in China: 0-14 years: 17.15 percent (male 127,484,177/female 109,113,241); 15-24 years: 12.78 percent (male 94,215,607/female 82,050,623); 25-54 years: 48.51 percent (male 341,466,438/female 327,661,460); 55-64 years: 10.75 percent (male 74,771,050/female 73,441,177); 65 years and over: 10.81 percent (male 71,103,029/female 77,995,969)
::中国年龄结构:0-14岁:17.15%(男性127 484 177/女性109 113 241);15-24岁:12.78%(男性94 215 607/女性82 050 623);25-54岁:48.51%(男性341 466 438/女性 327 661 460);55-64岁:10.75%(男性74 771 050/女性73 441 177);65岁及以上:10.81%(男性71 103 029/女性77 995 969)
More than 50 percent of China’s population lives in rural areas, meaning there is potential for high levels of rural-to-urban migration. The core industrial cities located in China Proper attract migrants in a periphery-to-core migration pattern. China hopes that this urbanization and industrial activity will also support its population control methods and fuel the industrial labor base. China’s urbanization increased at an unprecedented rate from 17 percent in 1978 to 47 percent in 2010. This rural-to-urban shift has been one of the largest in human history. It still continues; many workers shift from holding temporary employment in the cities to returning to their families in the countryside between jobs.
::中国50%以上的人口生活在农村地区,这意味着农村向城市迁移的可能性很高。 位于中国的核心工业城市适当地吸引了处于边缘向核心移民模式的移民。 中国希望这种城市化和工业活动也将支持其人口控制方法,为工业劳动力基础提供燃料。 中国城市化以前所未有的速度增长,从1978年的17%上升到2010年的47%。 农村向城市的这一转变是人类历史上最大的变化之一。 这一变化仍在继续;许多工人从在城市临时就业转向在工作之间回到农村家庭。Ethnic Groups
::族裔群体Han Chinese is the largest ethnic group in China, with about 90 percent of the country’s population. Some of the largest minority groups include Zhuang (Tai) in the south, Manchu in the northeast, Mongolian in the north-central region, Uyghur in Western China, and Tibetan in Tibet, although many other minority groups exist. The main language in China, Mandarin, is spoken in different ways in different parts of the country, particularly in the north and the south. The number of languages in China (over 290) roughly corresponds to the number of ethnic groups in the country.
::汉族是中国最大的民族,占中国人口的90%左右,其中最大的少数民族包括南部的朱昂族、东北部的满洲族、中北部地区的蒙古族、中西部的维吾尔族和西藏的西藏族,尽管还存在许多其他少数民族。中国的主要语言汉语以不同方式在中国不同地区、特别是在北部和南部使用,中国的语言数量(290多种)大致相当于中国的少数民族数量。
The languages most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, which contains Mandarin (spoken by 70 percent of the population).
::最常用的语言属于中蒂别塔语家族的西尼特语分支,该家族包含普通话(70%的人口说)。
In Western China, where the percentage of Han Chinese is quite low, most of the population is Uyghur, a group that tends to be Muslim. There are also Kazahks, Kyrgyz, and Tajiks from Central Asia, who are also predominantly Muslim. In 2010, the precise number of Muslims in China was not known, but government reports indicated there were about 21 million. Other reports indicate there may be three times that many. Minority groups like the Uyghurs have often experienced discrimination by the Chinese government, which has taken measures to marginalize minority groups.
::在中华人比例相当低的中华西部,大多数人口为维吾尔人,这个群体往往是穆斯林,还有来自中亚的卡扎克人、吉尔吉斯人和塔吉克人,他们也以穆斯林为主。2010年,中国穆斯林的确切人数不详,但政府报告显示,中国穆斯林人数约为2,100万,其他报告显示,人数可能高达3倍。维吾尔人等少数群体经常遭受中国政府的歧视,中国政府采取措施排斥少数群体。
Temple of the Filial Blessing, a place for lineage religion, in Wenzhou, Zhejiang.
::慈江温州 宗派宗教之地 基督圣殿
As a Communist country, there is no official religion in China, nor is any supported by the Chinese government. Before Communism, most of the people followed a type of Buddhism. Other belief systems included Taoism and the teachings of Confucius. Christianity does exist in China, but it is illegal to proselytize. Despite that, the Christian population in China has grown rapidly in recent decades. The exact number is unknown, but the CIA World Factbook estimates three to fourth percent of the population to be Christian, or somewhere between 39 and 52 million adherents.
::作为共产主义国家,中国没有正式的宗教,也没有得到中国政府的支持。在共产主义之前,大多数人信奉佛教。其他信仰体系包括道教和孔子的教义。基督教在中国确实存在,但改宗是非法的。尽管如此,近几十年来中国的基督教人口迅速增长。确切数字尚不得而知,但中央情报局的《世界概况》估计,四分之三的人口信奉基督教,或大约3,900万至5,200万信徒。There are many other sects and religious groups in China that have gained attention in recent years. Among these are the followers of Falun Gong, which emerged in the 1990s and has elements of Buddhism and Taoism in its beliefs. The group claims to be more of a science than a religion. The Chinese government believes otherwise and banned the Falun Gong in 1999 after the group staged a large protest against the Communist Party. The crackdown by the government included many arrests and stiff prison sentences. The group is currently banned by the government.
::近些年来,中国还有许多其他教派和宗教团体受到关注,其中包括1990年代出现的法轮功信徒,信奉佛教和道教,自称是科学而不是宗教,中国政府在1999年对共产党进行大规模抗议后,以其他方式信仰并禁止法轮功,政府镇压包括许多逮捕和严厉监禁,目前政府禁止该团体。Economic Summary
::经济摘要In the past two decades, China has shifted its economy from a closed system with a centrally planned, government-controlled market to one with more open trade and a flexible production structure. These economic reforms have allowed capitalistic tendencies to drive production, have promoted increased involvement in private enterprise, and have increased international investment in the Chinese economy.
::在过去二十年中,中国的经济已经从中央计划、政府控制的封闭市场转向开放贸易和灵活生产结构的封闭体系。 这些经济改革允许资本主义驱动生产,推动更多参与私营企业,增加中国经济的国际投资。China has phased out collective farms and has increased agricultural production. The approach to free enterprise and international trade and investment has become more open, and the Chinese economy has grown at a rapid rate. Open trade and interaction with the global community have allowed China to catch up with the rest of the world in terms of information and communication technology, and computer and Internet use in China has opened up many sectors to new opportunities and employment possibilities. China’s policy of creating special economic zones (SEZs) has increased urban and economic growth in coastal cities, fueling the strong rural-to-urban shift in the population.
::中国已经淘汰了集体农场,提高了农业生产,自由企业、国际贸易和投资的开放性,中国经济快速增长。 开放贸易和与全球社会的互动使得中国在信息通讯技术、计算机和互联网使用方面能够赶上世界其他国家,为新的机遇和就业机会开辟了许多部门。 中国建立特殊经济区(SEZs)的政策增加了沿海城市的城市和经济增长,促进了人口从农村向城市的强劲转变。
Special economic zones of China (SEZs) are special economic zones located in mainland China.
::中国特别经济区是位于中国大陆的特别经济区。
The fast-paced growth of the Chinese economy in the past decade has brought with it some negative consequences. The exploitation of resources and the heavy utilization of the environment have resulted in serious soil erosion and air pollution. The water table in many parts of China has decreased because of heavy demands on the nation’s water supply. Arable land is being lost to erosion and inadequate land-use practices.
::中国经济在过去十年的快速增长带来了一些消极后果,对资源的开采和对环境的大量利用导致了严重的土壤侵蚀和空气污染,中国许多地区的水位由于对国家供水的沉重需求而下降,阿拉伯土地正在因侵蚀和不当的土地使用做法而丧失。Rural areas have not received consideration or resources equal to the coastal cities, so conditions remain poor for most rural people. Half of China’s population earns the equivalent of a few dollars per day, while a fortunate few earn high salaries. Unemployment is at an elevated level for tens of millions of migrants who shift from location to location, looking for work. There is also an unfortunate degree of corruption within the government and state-run offices.
::农村地区没有得到与沿海城市同等的考虑或资源,因此大多数农村人口的状况仍然很差。 一半中国人口每天收入相当于几美元,而幸运的少数人工资却很高。 数千万移民失业水平较高,他们从地点向地点转移,寻找工作。 不幸的是,政府和国营办公室内部也存在严重的腐败。Compared to Western countries, China is an authoritarian state that does not allow labor unions, free speech, freedom of religion, or freedom of the press. There has been more openness in China’s economic reforms and in travel, but other strict rules of the state remain. There is no minimum wage law for factory workers, who work long hours and do not receive benefits or sick leave. There are fewer safety requirements or government regulations for security. China is trying to have the best of both worlds: the efficiency of an authoritarian government and an efficient market-driven capitalist economy.
::与西方国家相比,中国是一个专制国家,不允许工会、言论自由、宗教自由或新闻自由。 中国的经济改革和旅行更加开放,但国家的其他严格规则依然存在。 工厂工人没有最低工资法,他们工作时间长,得不到福利或病假。 安全要求或政府安全条例更少。 中国正在试图拥有两个世界的最好条件:专制政府的效率以及高效的市场经济。Growth of Enterprise and Industry
::企业和工业增长During the 1980s, following the death of Mao Zedong, China went through a transition period. The new leader, Deng Xiaoping, realized that in order for China to compete in the world market, its economy would have to be modernized. The challenge was to open up to the outside without the outside placing pressure on the Communist system inside of China. The so-called Bamboo Curtain, which referred to the restriction of movement of goods and people across Chinese borders, diminished.
::1980年代,在毛泽东死后,中国经历了一个转型时期。 新领导人邓小平意识到,为了让中国在世界市场上竞争,中国经济必须现代化。 挑战在于向外部开放,而不要对中国境内的共产主义体系施加外部压力。 所谓“竹布幕 ” , 即限制货物和人员跨越中国边境流动的“竹布幕”已经缩小。To attract business and tap into the global market economy, China established SEZs along the coast at strategic port cities. SEZs attracted international corporations who wanted to manufacture goods cheaply, while China’s population of 1.3 billion people provided an enormous labor pool and consumer market. China’s modernization efforts paid off in the 1990s, when world trade increased and US trade with China exploded.
::为了吸引商业和进入全球市场经济,中国在战略港口城市沿海岸建立了东南欧区。 东南欧区吸引了想要廉价制造货物的国际公司,而中国13亿人口提供了巨大的劳动力和消费市场。 中国的现代化努力在1990年代有所收效,当时世界贸易增加,美国与中国的贸易爆炸。By the year 2000, China had profited greatly because of its expanded manufacturing capacity. The coastal cities and the SEZs had become core industrial centers, attracting enormous numbers of migrants—most of them poor agricultural workers—looking for work in the factories. Compared to other jobs, factory jobs are prized employment opportunities. Rural-to-urban shift has kicked in and China’s urban growth is occurring at unprecedented rates.
::到2000年,中国由于其制造业能力的扩大而获得了巨大的利润。 沿海城市和东南欧已成为核心工业中心,吸引了大量的移民到工厂工作 — — 其中大部分是贫困的农业工人。 与其他工作相比,工厂就业是有价值的就业机会。 农村向城市的转变已经加快,中国的城市增长正在以前所未有的速度发展。Chinese people are moving to the cities looking for work, just like people in many other areas of the world. The SEZs encourage multinational corporations to move their overseas operations to China and take advantage of the lower labor and production costs. China benefits from the new business opportunities and by the creation of jobs for its citizens. SEZs operate under the objectives of providing tax incentives for foreign companies, exporting market-driven manufactured products, and creating joint partnerships so that everyone benefits. In the past decade, four main cities have been designated as SEZs, along with the entire province of Hainan Island to the south. Many coastal cities were also designated as development areas for industrial expansion.
::中国人正像世界其他许多地区的人一样,向寻找工作的城市迁移。东南欧合作区鼓励多国公司将其海外业务转移到中国,并利用较低的劳动和生产成本。中国受益于新的商业机会和为公民创造就业机会。东南欧合作区在为外国公司提供税收奖励、出口市场驱动的制成品以及建立使人人都受益的联合伙伴关系等方面运作。在过去的十年中,四个主要城市被指定为东南欧合作区,以及南方整个海南岛省。许多沿海城市也被指定为工业扩张的开发区。
This picture depicts the inside of an electronics factory in Shenzhen, China.
::这幅图片描绘了中国深圳一家电子工厂的内幕。
In 2006, the president of China called for an expansion of the economy to focus on more innovative activities. The government allowed additional funding for more research in the areas of genetics and gene therapy, computer software development, semiconductors, and alternative energy technologies. China has a high-level energy demand to fuel its expanding economy and provide for a large population, so alternative energy development has been expanding into wind and solar power for both domestic and commercial purposes. China’s industrial sector is advancing to compete in the global marketplace and muscle into the high-tech economy once dominated by core areas of Japan, Western Europe, and the United States.
::2006年,中国总统呼吁扩大经济,将重点放在更具创新性的活动上。 政府允许为遗传学和基因疗法、计算机软件开发、半导体和替代能源技术领域的更多研究提供额外资金。 中国拥有高水平的能源需求以刺激其不断扩大的经济和提供大量人口,因此替代能源开发已经扩展到风能和太阳能,既用于国内目的也用于商业目的。 中国工业部门正在推进全球市场竞争和进入曾经以日本、西欧和美国为主的核心地区 — — 的高科技经济。Geopolitics
::地缘政治The political environment of China cannot be separated from its geography. To understand the larger political picture of China’s position in the world, one has to understand China’s geography. In terms of its land area, China is a large country. It includes an immense peripheral region surrounding China Proper consisting of minority populations and buffer states.
::中国的政治环境不能与地理隔离。 要了解中国在世界上的地位的更大政治图景,就必须了解中国的地理位置。 就国土面积而言,中国是一个大国。 中国包括中国周边一个由少数民族人口和缓冲国组成的庞大外围地区。The core of China is the Han Chinese heartland of China Proper. This is where most of the population lives and where the best agricultural land for food production is located. The surrounding periphery consists of autonomous regions and minority populations, including Tibet, Western China, Inner Mongolia, and Northwestern China. Tibet is a buffer state between China and India; high mountains provide a buffer between India and Tibet. Nepal, Bhutan, and Kashmir are also buffer states between China and South Asia. High mountain ranges extend all along China’s western boundary.
::中国的核心是中国的中华心脏地带。 中国的核心是中国的中华心脏地带。 这是大部分人口生活的地方,也是粮食生产用地最好的农业用地所在。 周边的周边包括自治区和少数民族人口,包括西藏、中国西部、内蒙古和中国西北部。 西藏是中国和印度之间的缓冲国;高山是印度和西藏之间的缓冲国。 尼泊尔、不丹和克什米尔也是中国和南亚之间的缓冲国。 高山山脉遍布中国西部边界。Western China has a majority Muslim population closely aligned with ethnic groups in Central Asia. Inner Mongolia and the independent country of Mongolia create a buffer between China and Russia. China’s actual border with Russia is remote and distant. Northeast China was historically called Manchuria and is home to the Manchus, who are not Han Chinese.
::西方中国的穆斯林人口占多数,与中亚的族裔群体紧密相连。 内蒙古国和独立的蒙古国在中国和俄罗斯之间建立了缓冲。 中国与俄罗斯的实际边界是遥远和遥远的。 中国东北部历史上被称为满洲,是满洲的家园,并非汉人。Even the isolated sovereign country of North Korea acts as a buffer between China and the world superpower of the United States through its surrogate South Korea. The border with Southeast Asia is mountainous with difficult terrain and very little access. All these buffer regions insulate the Han heartland from the outside. China’s power base is actually a territorial island insulated and isolated from the rest of the world. Technology and trade have opened links between the Han Chinese heartland and the global marketplace.
::即使是孤立的北韩主权国家,也成为中国和美国世界超级大国通过其代理韩国在中国和美国之间的缓冲。 与东南亚的边界是多山,地形崎岖,交通不便。 所有这些缓冲地区都与外部隔绝了汉国的心脏地带。 中国的实力基地实际上是一个被隔绝和与世界其他地方隔绝的领土岛屿。 技术与贸易打开了汉国与全球市场之间的联系。In the scope of geopolitics (the study of the geography of international relations), the core of China is protected on all fronts except one, the eastern coast. Coastal China is accessible to anyone with a ship. Coastal China is where Japan and the European colonialists such as France, Great Britain, Portugal, and Germany all came to carve up China for its imperial advancements. Also located along the coast is the island of Taiwan with the independent government of the ROC.
::在地缘政治领域(国际关系地理学研究),中国的核心在除东海岸以外的所有战线上都受到保护,任何拥有船的人均可以进入中国沿海。 沿海中国是日本和欧洲殖民者,如法国、英国、葡萄牙和德国为帝国进步而来到中国的地方。 沿海也是台湾岛,由中国独立政府统治。Taiwan has been on friendly terms with the United States, which has posed a threat to the Chinese mainland. The coast makes China vulnerable. The challenge for China has been to neutralize the coastal threat and reduce its vulnerability. This is where the SEZs make a difference: the Chinese economy has relied on the SEZs to attract foreign corporations to conduct their business with the Chinese in these coastal cities. The economic world has forged ties with the Chinese along China’s coastal waters. The extensive coastal development creates a situation where it is now in everyone’s best interest to make the coastal region of China safe and prosperous.
::台湾一直与美国友好相处,美国对中国大陆构成威胁。 海岸使中国变得脆弱。 中国面临的挑战是消除海岸威胁和减少其脆弱性。 东南欧在这方面有所作为:中国经济依靠东南欧吸引外国公司在这些沿海城市与中国做生意。 经济世界与中国沿海水域建立了联系。 广泛的沿海发展创造了一种形势,让中国沿海地区安全和繁荣对大家都有利。In the geopolitical sense, China has historically operated under three main premises. The first premise is that China must secure a buffer zone in the periphery, which includes the regions along China’s borders. Second, the country needs to continue to maintain unity within the Han Chinese majority that anchors the core region of China Proper. The third component of China’s geopolitical strategy is to protect and secure its vulnerable coastal region. The country needs to find a way to marginalize outside influence and keep the heartland protected from invaders. These three geopolitical directives were designed before the postindustrial economy emerged with the information age, but the main themes of securing and protecting China remain.
::从地缘政治的角度来看,中国历来在三个主要前提下运作。 第一个前提是中国必须保证外围地带的缓冲区,包括中国边界沿线的地区。 第二,中国需要继续维持作为中国核心地区的中华多数的团结。 中国地缘政治战略的第三个组成部分是保护和保障其脆弱的沿海地区。 中国需要找到一种将外部影响边缘化并保护心脏地带不受入侵的方法。 这三项地缘政治指令是在后工业化经济随着信息时代的形成而设计,但中国的安全与保护主题依然存在。China has additional political issues within the core region of China Proper. To maintain a unified Han Chinese power base, there should not be uneven levels of equity in the standards of living within the core region. Manufacturing has rapidly increased in the coastal cities of the SEZs and other development areas. The standard of living in the coastal cities has improved, which has created a disparity between the coastal cities and the rural regions of the interior.
::中国在中华特区核心地区还存在其他政治问题。为了维持中国统一的中华电力基础,核心地区生活水平的公平水平不应不平衡。东南欧沿海城市和其他开发地区的制造业迅速增长。沿海城市的生活水平有所提高,造成沿海城市与内地农村地区之间的差别。Factory workers can earn the equivalent of 50 cents an hour, while their counterparts working in the fields in agriculture are only making the equivalent of a few dollars per day. As a Communist country, this was one of the basic foundational principles within a socialist society—the even distribution of wealth. It kept everyone equal, at least in theory. The more open capitalist economy is changing this and challenging the equality issue.
::工厂工人每小时可以挣50美分,而农业工人每天只赚到几美元。 作为一个共产主义国家,这是社会主义社会的基本基本原则之一 — — 财富的均衡分配。 它使每个人都平等,至少在理论上如此。 更开放的资本主义经济正在改变这一局面,挑战平等问题。China is also economically unevenly reliant on its ability to maintain a high level of export manufacturing as its method of gaining wealth. The country does not have a type of geography that holds adequate agricultural resources to provide for its vast population. Manufacturing requires good political and economic relationships with the international community. In summary, China’s eastern coast development is a risk that China is forced to take. The risk is a trade-off. On one hand, the eastern coast is the most geopolitically vulnerable side of China, but on the other hand, it is where the most extensive economic gains have been made in recent years.
::中国在经济上也依赖维持高水平的出口制造业作为获取财富的手段的能力,这种能力在经济上也是不均衡的。 中国没有拥有足够农业资源供给其广大人口的地理类型。 制造业需要与国际社会建立良好的政治和经济关系。 总而言之,中国的东海岸发展是中国被迫承担的风险。 风险是权衡。 一方面,东海岸是中国地缘政治最脆弱的一面,但另一方面,它是近年来取得最广泛经济成果的地方。China’s Bamboo Curtain has disappeared, and the country is no longer isolated from the rest of the world. Economic development has created a strong degree of dependency on other countries through the doorways of China’s coastal cities. China is becoming dependent on the outside world for oil, raw materials, and technology. Multinational corporations are dependent on China for low-cost manufactured goods. China is becoming more integrated within the network of the global economy.
::中国的竹竹幕已经消失,中国不再与世界其他国家隔绝。 经济发展通过中国沿海城市的门道对其他国家形成了高度依赖。 中国的石油、原材料和技术正日益依赖外部世界。 跨国公司的低成本制成品依赖中国。 中国日益融入全球经济网络。
Key Takeaways
::密钥外出-
China has embarked on a number of serious transitions since the Communist republic was declared in 1949. Since that time, the country has shifted from a command economy to a market economy and has opened up trade to the West. This has opened up more opportunities for the Chinese people as well.
::中国自1949年宣布成立共产主义共和国以来,开始了一系列重大转型,从那时起,中国从指令经济转向市场经济,向西方开放贸易,也为中国人民开辟了更多机会。 -
China has a number of autonomous regions and municipalities. Many of these political units are also home to minority ethnic groups. Han Chinese make up about 90 percent of the people of China.
::中国有多个自治区和自治市,其中许多政治单位也是少数民族的家园,汉人约占中国人口的90%。 -
China’s large population has prompted the government to implement a one-child-only policy, which has resulted in a decrease in population growth but has also caused an imbalance in the percentages of boys and girls being born in many of the provinces.
::中国人口众多,促使政府推行一童政策,导致人口增长下降,但也造成许多省份出生的男女儿童比例失衡。 -
The creation of SEZs along the coast, and an open-trade policy, have rapidly developed China’s manufacturing sector. This trend has attracted multinational corporations to move their operations to China to tap into the low labor and overhead costs and receive tax incentives from the Chinese government. The result has been an increase in the rural-to-urban shift in China’s population.
::沿海岸建立东南欧区以及实行开放贸易政策,迅速发展了中国的制造业部门。 这一趋势吸引了跨国公司向中国转移业务,以利用低劳动力成本和间接费用,并获得中国政府的税收激励。 其结果是中国人口从农村向城市的转变有所增加。 -
China’s historical geopolitical situation was to secure a buffer around its heartland, unify the Han majority, and protect its vulnerable coastal region. Economic trade and interaction with the global economy have made China dependent on other countries for its continual economic success.
::中国的历史地缘政治形势是在其中心地带确保缓冲,统一汉占多数,保护其脆弱的沿海地区。 经济贸易和与全球经济的互动让中国依赖其他国家来持续取得经济成功。
Vocabulary Terms
::词汇术语术语Chapter 10.2 Emergence of Modern China
::第10.2章 现代中国的兴起Chiang Kai-shek
::蒋介石Known as the "Father of Modern China", he was a Chinese political and military leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China between 1928 and 1975; improved transportation, education, industry.
::他是中国的政治和军事领袖, 曾在1928年至1975年间担任中华民国领导人;command economy (Communist Economic System)
:共产经济体系)
Production of goods and services is determined by a central government, which usually owns the means of production. Production does not necessarily reflect consumer demand. Also called a planned economy.
::商品和服务的生产由中央政府决定,中央政府通常拥有生产手段,生产不一定反映消费者需求,也称为计划经济。Confucianism
::儒才主义A movement based on the teachings of the Chinese philosopher, Confucius. He stressed the importance of education in an ordered society in which one respects one's elders and obeys the government.
::他强调教育在一个有秩序的社会中的重要性,在这个社会中,人们尊重自己的长辈,服从政府。ethnic group
::种族群体A group of people in a country who share a unique culture and identity.
::在一个拥有独特文化和特性的国家,一群人。global Economy
::全球经济 全球经济The merging of regional economies in which nations become dependent on each other for goods and services.
::区域经济体的合并使各国在货物和服务方面彼此依赖。Great Leap Forward
::大跃向前A program implemented by Mao Zedong in 1958 to speed economic development in China.
::毛泽东1958年实施的一项旨在加速中国经济发展的方案。infrastructure
::基础设施基础设施The basic support systems needed to keep an economy going, including power, communications, transportation, water, sanitation, and education systems.
::维持经济运行所需的基本支助系统,包括电力、通信、运输、水、卫生和教育系统。market e conomy
::市场经济、市场经济和市场经济A type of economy in which the production of goods and services is determined by the demand of the consumers. Also known as a demand economy or capitalism.
::一种由消费者需求决定商品和服务生产的经济,又称为需求经济或资本主义。Mao Zedong
::毛泽东Leader of Communist Party who defeated the Nationalist Party in 1949 and declared China a communist state.
::共产党领导人1949年击败了民族主义党,宣布中国为共产主义国家。One-Child Policy
::单一儿童政策Adopted by China in 1979, this policy was in reaction to its rapidly growing population. This policy restricted families to only one child and outlawed early marriage.
::中国1979年通过的这一政策是针对其人口迅速增长而采取的,该政策只将家庭限制在一名子女之外,并禁止早婚。Special Administrative Regions of China (SAR)
::中国特别行政区(特区)These provincial-level regions of China enjoy the highest degree of autonomy, and no or less interference by either the Central Government or the Chinese Communist Party.
::中国这些省一级的地区享有最高程度的自治权,中央政府或中国共产党的干预程度不高也不低。Applying Knowledge
::应用知识Discussion and Study Questions
::讨论和研究问题-
What did the Bamboo Curtain refer to? How has China changed with regard to its Bamboo Curtain?
::竹幕是指什么?中国如何改变竹幕? -
What are SEZs? Where would we find them in China? Why are they located where they are located?
::什么是SEZ?我们在中国在哪里找到它们?为什么它们的位置在哪里? -
Which region of China has the highest population density? Why do they live here rather than in other areas of China?
::中国哪个地区人口密度最高? 他们为什么住在这里而不是在中国其他地区? -
What policy has China implemented to help curb population growth? What are some of the results of these policies?
::中国实施了哪些政策帮助遏制人口增长?这些政策取得了哪些成果? -
What are the five autonomous regions based on in China? Where are they located?
::基于中国的五个自治区是什么?它们在哪里? -
Why did China shift from a command economy to a market economy?
::中国为什么从指令经济转向市场经济? -
What are the main ethnic groups, languages, and religions in China?
::中国的主要民族、语言和宗教是什么? -
Considering current conditions, what are the major development patterns in China?
::考虑到目前的情况,中国的主要发展模式是什么? -
Under what four main principles do the SEZs operate?
::安全区根据什么四项主要原则运作? -
What were the three main historical objectives in China’s geopolitical situation?
::中国地缘政治形势的三大历史目标是什么?
Real-World Geography Exercises
::现实世界地理演习Using , locate each one of the cities on the list below. Calculate the distance and how long it would take to travel by airplane from the Portland International Airport in Portland, Oregon, to each location. Be prepared to share and discuss your answers.
::使用 , 确定下面列表中每个城市的位置。 计算从俄勒冈州波特兰国际机场乘飞机前往每个地点的距离和时间。 准备分享和讨论您的答案 。Airport
::机场机场机场City served
::服务城市Current Events
::当前事件Geographic Education Scoop It
::地理教育组织Videos for Geography Enrichment
::地理丰富视频Helpful Websites for the Study of Geography
::地理研究有用网站is an encyclopedia funded by the Canadian government covering all branches of knowledge. Their scholarly collection includes interactive materials.
::该百科全书由加拿大政府资助,涵盖所有知识分支,其学术收藏包括交互式材料。provides information on the people, history, government, economy, energy, geography, communications, transportation, military, and transnational issues for the world's entities.
::向世界各实体提供关于人民、历史、政府、经济、能源、地理、通信、运输、军事和跨国问题的资料。is a US government website where you can find federal legislation, past and present, as well as information about the US legal system.
::是一个美国政府的网站,您可以在此找到过去和现在的联邦立法以及关于美国法律制度的信息。is a government agency website that provides current news, resources, topics of interest, information about drugs, careers in the DEA, and a tip hotline.
::是一个政府机构网站,提供最新消息、资源、感兴趣的话题、毒品信息、在缉毒局的职业以及一条小费热线。is the largest library in the world and provides manuscripts, files, information, pictures, and videos.
::图书馆是世界上最大的图书馆,提供手稿、文件、信息、图片和录像。is a US government agency website that allows users to search for and retrieve satellite images of Earth.
::这是一个美国政府机构的网站,用户可以搜索和检索地球的卫星图像。is a US government website that provides historical documents, photos, records, publications, and educator resources.
::这是一个美国政府网站,提供历史文件、照片、记录、出版物和教育资源。is a US government agency website that provides weather-related information and ocean research.
::是一个提供气象信息和海洋研究的美国政府机构网站。is a website by the United States Geological Survey and other federal, state, and local agencies that delivers topographic information for the United States.
::这是美国地质调查局和其他联邦、州和地方机构为美国提供地形信息的网站。is a massive central data source and a handy way to graphically compare nations.
::是一个庞大的中央数据源,是用图形比较国家的一种方便方式。is a website that measures most locations in the world for air pollution in real time.
::是一个实时测量世界上大多数空气污染地点的网站。is a unique statistical database, which allows you to research and compare a multitude of different data on US states.
::这是一个独特的统计数据库, 使你能够研究和比较关于美国各州的多种不同数据。is an international organization founded in 1945 and made up of 193 member states. The UN maintains international peace and security, protects human rights, delivers humanitarian aid, promotes sustainable development, and upholds international law.
::联合国是一个国际组织,成立于1945年,由193个成员国组成。 联合国维护国际和平与安全,保护人权,提供人道主义援助,促进可持续发展,维护国际法。is a US government agency that provides a population clock, data, surveys, statistics, a library with information and infographics, news about the economy, and much more.
::这是一个美国政府机构,它提供人口钟、数据、调查、统计、一个拥有信息和信息资料的图书馆、关于经济的新闻,以及更多。is a US government agency website that provides scientific information about the natural hazards that threaten lives, the natural resources we rely on, the health of our ecosystems and environment, and the impacts of climate and land-use change.
::这是一个美国政府机构的网站,提供科学信息,说明威胁生命的自然危害、我们赖以生存的自然资源、生态系统和环境的健康以及气候和土地使用变化的影响。is a US government website that provides the latest presidential news, information about the budget, policy, defense, and many more topics.
::提供最新总统新闻、预算、政策、国防等资讯, 以及更多议题。is under the United Nations and provides leadership on matters critical to health, shapes the research agenda on health, and monitors the health situation and assessing health trends around the world. Their website provides information on the state of health around the world, outbreaks, current health news, and more.
::网站提供世界各地卫生状况、疫情爆发、最新卫生新闻等信息。is an intergovernmental organization that regulates international trade. The website provides information on the history of the multilateral trading system, featured videos, news and events, trade topics, and more.
::该网站提供关于多边贸易体系历史的信息、视频、新闻和事件、贸易专题等等。 -
Summarize the main steps China has taken to transition from a strict Communist country established in 1949 to a more open society with a capitalist type of economy today.
