Section outline

  • General

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  • 科学方法

    A digital clock radio displaying 4:00 PM, highlighting a typical alarm clock design.

    How can we use problem solving in our everyday routines?
    ::我们如何在日常日常工作中利用解决问题的办法?

    One day you wake up and realize your clock radio did not turn on to get you out of bed.  You are puzzled, so you decide to find out what happened.  You list three possible explanations:
    ::有一天,你醒来发现你的时钟收音机没有打开让你起床。你被迷惑了,所以你决定查明发生了什么。你列举了三种可能的解释:

    1. There was a power failure and your radio cannot turn on..
      ::电断了,你的收音机无法打开...
    2. Your little sister turned it off as a joke.
      ::你妹妹把它关了,当做玩笑
    3. You did not set the alarm last night.
      ::你昨晚没有设定警报器

    Upon investigation you find that the clock is on, so there is no power failure.  Your little sister was spending the night with a friend and could not have turned the alarm off.  You notice that the alarm is not set – your forgetfulness made you late.  You have used the scientific method to find an answer to a question.
    ::在调查后,你发现时钟开着,所以没有断电。你的妹妹和朋友过夜,无法把警报关掉。你注意到警报没有响起,你的忘却使你迟到。你使用了科学方法来找到问题的答案。

    Scientific Problem Solving
    ::科学问题的解决

    Humans have always wondered about the world around them. One of the questions of interest was (and still is) what is this world made of? Chemistry has been defined in various ways as the study of matter. What that matter consists of has been a source of debate over the centuries. One of the key arenas for this debate in the Western world was Greek philosophy.
    ::人类总是对周围的世界感到疑惑。 关心的一个问题是(现在仍然是)这个世界是由什么组成的?化学已经以各种方式被定义为物质研究。 多少世纪来,什么是争论的源头。 西方世界这场辩论的一个重要领域是希腊哲学。

    The basic approach of these philosophers to questions about the world was discussion and debate. There was no gathering of information to speak of, just talking. As a result, several ideas about matter were put forth, but never resolved.  The first philosopher to carry out the gathering of data was Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). He recorded many observations on the weather, on plant and animal life and behavior, on physical motions, and a number of other topics. Aristotle could probably be considered the first “real” scientist since he made systematic observations of nature and tried to understand what he was seeing.
    ::这些哲学家对世界问题的基本态度是讨论和辩论,没有收集信息来谈论,只是谈论。结果,提出了几个关于问题的想法,但从未解决。第一个收集数据的哲学家是亚里士多德(384-322 B.C. ) 。 他记录了许多关于天气、植物和动物生命和行为、运动、以及其他一些主题的观察。 亚里士多德(Aristotle)可能被认为是第一个“真实的”科学家,因为他对自然进行了系统观察,并试图了解他所看到的。

    A depiction of Aristotle, the ancient Greek philosopher known for his scientific observations.

    Aristotle.
    ::亚里士多德

    Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
    ::扣减和扣减理由

    Two approaches to logical thinking developed over the centuries. These two methods are inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning . involves getting a collection of specific examples and drawing a general conclusion from them. Deductive reasoning takes a general principle and then draws a specific conclusion from the general concept. Both are used in the development of scientific ideas.
    ::几个世纪以来发展起来的两种逻辑思维方法,这两种方法都是推理和推理推理,涉及收集具体例子,并从中得出一般结论,推理采用一般原则,然后从一般概念中得出具体结论,这两种方法都用于发展科学思想。

    Inductive reasoning first involves the collection of data. If I add sodium metal to water, I will observe a very violent reaction. Every time I repeat the process, I see the same thing happening. I draw a general conclusion from these observations: the addition of sodium to water results in a violent reaction.
    ::引入推理首先涉及数据收集。如果我在水中添加金属钠,我将观察到一种非常暴力的反应。每次我重复这一过程,我都会看到同样的事情发生。我从这些观察中得出一个一般性结论:在水中添加钠会导致暴力反应。

    In deductive reasoning, I make a specific prediction based on a general principle. One general principle is that acids turn blue litmus paper red. If I have a bottle of labeled “ ,” I expect the litmus paper to turn red when I immerse it in the liquid.
    ::在推理推理中,我根据一般原则做了具体的预测。 一项一般原则是酸化会变成蓝色闪光纸红色。 如果我有一瓶贴有标签的“ ” , 我期望在浸泡在液体中时闪光纸会变成红色。

     

     

    The Idea of the Experiment
    ::实验的理想思想

    Inductive reasoning is at the heart of what we call the “ scientific method. ” In European culture, this approach was developed mainly by Francis Bacon (1561-1626), a British scholar. He advocated the use of inductive reasoning in every area of life, not just science. The scientific method as developed by Bacon and others involved several steps:
    ::感性推理是我们所谓的“科学方法”的核心。 在欧洲文化中,这一方法主要由英国学者弗朗西斯·培根(Francis Bacon )(1561-1626 ) 制定。 他主张在生命的各个领域,而不仅仅是科学,采用感性推理。 培根和其他方面开发的科学方法涉及几个步骤:

    1. ask a question – identify the problem to be considered
      ::提出一个问题——确定需要考虑的问题
    2. make observations – gather data that pertains to the question
      ::收集与该问题有关的数据
    3. propose an explanation ( a hypothesis) for the observations
      ::对这些意见提出解释(假设)
    4. make new observations to test the further
      ::提出新的意见,以进一步检验

    A historical portrait of Sir Francis Bacon in a dark robe and hat.

    Sir Francis Bacon.
    ::弗朗西斯・培根爵士

    Note that this should not be considered a “cookbook” for scientific . Scientists do not sit down with their daily “to do” list and write down these steps. The steps may not necessarily be followed in order. But this does provide a general idea of how scientific research is usually done.
    ::请注意,这不应被视为科学的“烹饪手册 ” 。 科学家们并不坐在他们每天的“做”清单中写下这些步骤。 这些步骤不一定能按部就班地执行。 但这确实提供了科学研究通常如何进行的一般概念。

    When a hypothesis is confirmed repeatedly, it eventually becomes a theory – a general principle that is offered to explain natural phenomena. Note a key word – explanation. The theory offers a description of why something happens. A law , on the other hand, is a statement that is always true, but does not explain why. The law of gravity says a rock will fall when dropped, but does not explain why (gravitational theory is very complex and incomplete at present). The kinetic-molecular theory of , on the other hand, tells what happens when a gas is heated in a closed container (the pressure increases), but also explains why (the motions of the gas molecules are increased due to the change in temperature). Theories do not get “promoted” to laws because laws do not answer the “why” question.
    ::当一个假设一再得到确认时,它最终会变成一种理论 — — 一种用于解释自然现象的一般原则。 注意一个关键词 — — 解释。 理论描述了发生某事的原因。 另一方面,法律是一个总是真实的声明,但却没有解释原因。 重力法说岩石在下降时会下降,但并没有解释原因(重力理论非常复杂,目前还不完整 ) 。 另一方面,动能分子理论(pactical-分子理论)告诉了气体在封闭容器中加热(压力增加 ) , 但也解释了原因(气体分子的动作因温度变化而增加 ) 。 理论不会因为法律不回答“原因 ” 问题而“ ” 而“ 推广” 。

     

     

    Summary 
    ::摘要

    • The early Greek philosophers spend their time talking about nature, but did little or no actual exploration or investigation.
      ::早期的希腊哲学家花时间谈论自然,
    • inductive reasoning – developing a general conclusion from a collection of observations.
      ::引人入胜的推理 — — 从一系列观察中得出一般性结论。
    • deductive reasoning – making a specific statement based on a general principle.
      ::扣减推理——根据一般原则作出具体陈述。
    • scientific method – a process of observation, developing a hypothesis, and testing that hypothesis.
      ::科学方法——观察过程, 发展一种假设, 测试这种假设。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. What was the basic shortcoming of the Greek philosophers approach to studying the material world?
      ::希腊哲学家研究物质世界的方法的基本缺陷是什么?
    2. How did Aristotle improve the approach?
      ::亚里士多德是如何改进这一方法的?
    3. Define “inductive reasoning” and give an example.
      ::界定“感性推理”并举一例。
    4. Define “deductive reasoning” and give an example.
      ::定义“诱导性推理”并举一个例子。
    5. What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?
      ::假设和理论有什么区别?
    6. What is the difference between a theory and a law?
      ::理论与法律有什么区别?