2.5 苏格拉底和柏拉图的遗产
Section outline
-
The Legacy of Socrates
::苏格拉底的遗产Socrates Theory of the Soul
::灵魂的苏格拉底理论Socrates believed that he had a mission to seek after wisdom. He died being faithful to that mission. He attempted to find a stable and certain truth and a wisdom that would serve as a guide for life. He attempted to lead others to real insight. He wanted to persuade others to look into themselves, to seek wisdom and virtue and to care for their noblest possession, their soul, before all else. He attempted this even at his trial and in his final days and hours. He used the dialectical method as a midwife to ideas to lead others to knowledge, truth and virtue. He used the dialectical process to arrive at universal definitions. Plato would develop the explanatory schema in which the universal definition is attainable due to a process of recollection through which all people can gain knowledge of what is within them, their minds from birth. Socrates himself believed in the universality of the inner rational being. He believed that:
::苏格拉底相信他有一个追求智慧的使命,他为了忠实于这一使命而死。他试图找到一个稳定而明确的真理和智慧,以作生命的向导。他试图使别人有真知灼见。他想说服别人自己去探究,寻求智慧和美德,并在一切之前照顾他们的崇高财产和灵魂。他试图在审判期间和最后几天和数小时内都这样做。他用辩证方法作为助产士,使思想引领他人了解、真理和美德。他利用辩证程序达成普遍定义。普拉托将发展解释性计划,在这种计划中,普遍定义可以实现,因为通过一个回顾过程,所有人都能够了解他们内心的思想,从出生开始。他相信内在理性的普遍性。他相信:The unexamined life is not worth living! The best manner to examine that life is through reasoning which employs the dialectical method of inquiry. Plato inherits this belief, expands upon it and promulgates this belief.
::未经审查的生活不值得生活! 检查生命的最佳方式是运用辩证调查方法的推理。 柏拉图继承了这一信念,扩展了它,并颁布了这一信念。Plato's Theory of Immortality
::柏拉图的不朽理论The Socratic Method
::专制方法The Socratic method , also known as maieutics , method of elenchus , elenctic method , or Socratic debate , is a form of cooperative argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering questions to stimulate critical thinking and to draw out ideas and underlying presumptions. It is a dialectical method, often involving a discussion in which the defense of one point of view is questioned; one participant may lead another to contradict themselves in some way, thus weakening the defender's point. This method is named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates and is introduced by him in Plato's Timeus to bring out definitions implicit in the interlocutors ' beliefs, or to help them further their understanding.
::专制方法(又称maieutics)、精英方法、精英方法或专制辩论,是个人之间合作性辩论的一种形式,其基础是提问和回答问题,以激发批判性思维并引出思想和基本假设;这是一种辩证方法,经常涉及讨论,对一个观点的辩护提出质疑;一个参与者可能导致另一个参与者以某种方式自相矛盾,从而削弱辩护人的观点;这种方法是以古希腊哲学家Socrates命名的,由他在Plato's Timus中引入,目的是提出对话者信仰中隐含的定义,或帮助他们进一步理解。The Socratic method is a method of hypothesis elimination, in that better hypotheses are found by steadily identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. The Socratic method searches for general, commonly held truths that shape beliefs and scrutinizes them to determine their consistency with other beliefs. The basic form is a series of q uestions formulated as tests of logic and fact intended to help a person or group discover their beliefs about some topic, exploring definitions or logos and seeking to characterize general characteristics shared by various particular instances.
::专制方法是一种消除假设的方法,因为通过稳步查明和消除导致矛盾的假设可以找到更好的假设; 专制方法寻求一般的、通常持有的、影响信仰的真理,并仔细检查这些真理,以确定它们与其他信仰的一致性; 基本形式是一系列问题,作为逻辑和事实的检验,旨在帮助个人或群体发现他们对某个主题的信仰,探索定义或标志,并设法确定不同特定情况所共有的一般特征。Socratic Method
::精度方法Example of Socratic Dialogue
::专制对话实例Ethics
::道德操守道德操守For Socrates the key to a virtuous life was knowledge of the good and this links ethics with epistemology . If one knew the good one would choose it. One always chooses the best of the options available. The question was, what is the good ? What is best ? Virtue would depend on knowledge. Knowledge itself is a virtue but knowledge of the good and of virtue was necessary for the good life. The soul must choose the good but only if it knows what it is. Evil is the result of ignorance. The soul chooses what it thinks is the good but if it isn’t, the soul has made a mistake. Wrong doing is involuntary. Evil doers must be educated, instructed as to what truly is the good and then they will choose it.
::行善的关键是善事,而善事与善事之间,是互相认识的。谁知道善事,谁就择取善事。如果他知道善事,谁就择取善事,谁择取最优的选择。问题是:善事是什么?善事是最好的呢?善事是最好的呢?善事是依知识而决定的。善事本身是一种美事,而善事和善事的知识是善良生活所必须的。人必须择取善事,如果他知道善事,那末,善事是无效的。不义者是非自愿的。必须受过教育,知道善事是真实的,然后选择善事。Socrates believed that no one does wrong voluntarily. Evil is the result of ignorance. If people knew what was the right thing to do they would do it. We always choose what we think is the best or good for us. So, if someone chooses to do what we think is wrong, then that person made a mistake and must be educated to see the error. They mistook evil for the good. Do you agree? Why or why not?
::苏格拉底人确信任何人都不自觉地作恶。恶是愚昧的结果。如果人们知道什么才是他们所欲为的,那末,他们确已做了这件事了。我们总是择取我们认为最优美或最优美的。如果有人选择做我们认为错的事,那末,他确已犯了错误,他必须受过教诲,以便他看见错误。他们误入善行,难道你们同意吗?为什么或不这样做?Socrates held that people know that other people think that it is wrong but they do not totally agree. The wrong doers think that there is something good in doing the evil act even if it is only good for them. So, they do it. If the wrong doers understood why the act was considered to be wrong they would not do it. They do it because they mistake the evil act for a good act in some way. Given options humans will choose the options that appears to be good for them. When they choose what other people call evil it is because they do not agree. They will continue to do the evil acts unless and until they no longer think of them as good.
::苏格拉底认为,人们知道别人猜想自己是错的,但他们并不完全同意。不义者猜想做恶事是有福的,即使那对于他们是有益的。他们这样做了。如果不义者知道自己是错的,那末,他们不会这样做。他们这样做,因为他们误以为作恶是好事。凡人所选择的,都是对他们有益的。当他们拣选别人所称作恶的时候,这是因为他们不同意。他们将继续做恶事,除非他们认为自己是善良的,直到他们不再认为自己是善良的。-
Socrates' theory
doesn't
claim that people who do wrong do not know that the act is wrong.
::苏格拉底的理论并不声称 做错的人不知道行为是错的 -
Socrates' theory
doesn't
claim that people who do wrong do think that it is correct or right to do.
::苏格拉底的理论并不声称做错人的人 认为这样做是正确或正确的。
The theory is that people who do wrong know that other people think that it is wrong but that the wrong doer does not accept that and does not agree because the wrong doer sees some benefit or good result for the wrong doer.
::理论是,做错的人知道其他人认为这是错的,但做错人不接受,也不同意,因为做错人认为做错人有某种好处或好结果。As long as the wrong doer continues to see some benefit or good result for the wrong doer then the wrong doer will continue to do the act that is considered wrong by other people . When the wrong doer comes to understand and to know why the other people think of the act as being wrong and the wrong doer accepts that, then the wrong doer will stop doing that act.
::只要做错人继续看到做错人得到某种好处或好结果,那么做错人将继续做别人认为错误的行为。 当做错人开始理解并知道为什么别人认为该行为是错误的,而做错人接受,那么做错人就会停止做错事。-
Person P does act X.
::人P做X动作。 -
Person P knows that
other people
think that act X is
wrong
or bad or evil.
::人P知道,其他人认为X行动是错的或坏的或坏的。 -
Person P does X anyway because person P thinks that X is in some way good for P. (X is fun or relieves pain or will bring money or power or fame to P)
::人P做X反正是因为人P认为X对P有某种好处(X是乐趣或减轻痛苦,或会给P带来金钱、权力或名声) -
P thinks that X will
benefit
P.
Bene
=
good
and
fit
= Make or do. So P thinks that X will in some way make a good for P.
::P认为X会给P. Bene带来好处。P认为X会给P带来好处。P认为X会在某种程度上为P带来好处。 -
Unless and until P stops thinking of X as a
good
, P will continue to do X. P does X because people always choose what they think is on some way good for them.
::除非P停止认为X是好东西, 否则P会继续做X。P会做X,因为人们总是选择他们认为在某条路上对他们有好处的东西。
For Socrates the soul always goes to the good. The soul "volunteers" or wills to do the good.So P chooses X out of ignorance of what is truly good as other people see the good as different from X.
::苏格拉底 灵魂 总是 向 善良 的 。 灵魂 " 自愿者 " 或 愿意 做 善事 。 所以P 选择 X 是因为 不了解 真正 善事 。 其他人 也 认为 善 与 X 不同 。Further, Socrates held that all virtue is one. Virtue is good. Truth is good . Beauty is good . Knowledge is good . The true, good and beautiful are all good and united in the good as one .How was one to teach others what the good is? Socrates sought an answer to that and many other questions. The Sophists claimed to teach but they trained in technique. They dealt with specialized actions. Virtue is not specialized.
::此外,苏格拉底认为所有美德都是一体的,道德是好的,道德是好的,真理是好的,美是好的,美是好的,知识是好的,知识是好的,真理是好的,美是好的,善良是团结在一起的。教别人什么是好的,苏格拉底是怎么做到的?苏格拉底寻求答案和其他许多问题的答案。苏格拉底声称要教书,但他们受过技术训练。他们从事的是专门的行动。道德不是专业的。Plato on the Good Life (Socratic Ethics)
::" 美好生活 " 排(贵族道德)Epistemology
::心理学Socrates developed the dialectical process for gaining knowledge. He used an inductive method of argumentation in order to develop universal definitions. This was his approach to the truth that would be perfected by Plato. Socrates would examine theories (logoi) using the dialectic method, which was similar to a conversational pattern with many questions. Socrates would challenge initial hypotheses and examine them for presumptions and assumptions. He regularly used two techniques:
::苏格拉底开发了获取知识的辩证过程。他用一种感性论解方法来制定通用定义。这是他处理真相的方法,柏拉图可以完善。苏格拉底将使用辩证方法来研究理论(logoi ) , 这种方法与许多问题的谈话模式相似。苏格拉底将质疑最初的假设,并研究假设和假设。他经常使用两种方法:-
What follows if……..
::那么如果... . . -
What conflicts with …
::与... 冲突是什么...
He did this in an effort to establish the truth of the hypothesis. He looked for a coherent and consistent set of ideas; a system of thought.The pre-Socratic speculated, Socrates tested the ideas. Socrates looked to facts to test the theories. In this way he was somewhat similar to Sir Issac Newton and modern science. Socrates sought to deduce the consequences of a hypothesis in order to test it thereby.
::他这样做是为了查明假设的真相,他寻求一套连贯和一致的想法;一套思想体系。 苏格拉底先于独裁的猜测,苏格拉底测试了这些想法。 苏格拉底以事实来检验理论。 这样,他与伊萨克·牛顿爵士和现代科学有些相似。 苏格拉底试图推断假设的后果,以检验它。The Sophists raised many questions in order to win debates and to gain power. Socrates did so to pursue truth. He did not achieve all of what he sought. Plato would go further and develop answers through the implementation of his theory of the Ideal Forms.Socrates genius was in this:he was the first to raise certain basic questions with a clear understanding of what he was doing.
::苏格拉底(Socrates)这样做是为了追求真理,他没有实现他所追求的一切。 柏拉图将进一步通过实施他的“理想形式”理论来发展答案。 苏格拉底的天才就是这个:他是第一个提出某些基本问题并清楚地了解他在做什么的人。What is Epistemology?
::什么是弹性学?The Legacy of Plato
::柏拉图的遗产Were it not for Socrates, Plato would not have become a Philosopher and not only the western world but the entire world would have been a different place with a decidedly different history!
::如果不是苏格拉底,柏拉图不会成为一个哲学家, 不仅西方世界, 整个世界也会是一个不同的地方, 有着完全不同的历史!Scholars have studied Plato's many dialogues very carefully. Many of them agree that the dialogues were written over many years and that they appear to have a slightly different tone, which reflects Plato's intention in writing them. Indeed, scholars who find in them a progression of ideas set the dialogues in a temporal order. Plato works from those ideas and methodology he inherits from Socrates and then devises his own unique set of ideas and further develops the dialectical method of reasoning, which he learned from Socrates.
::学者们非常仔细地研究了柏拉图的许多对话,其中许多人同意对话是多年来写的,它们似乎有略微不同的语气,这反映了柏拉图的写作意图。 事实上,在他们中发现思想进步的学者们将对话按时间顺序排列。 柏拉图利用他从苏格拉底继承下来的理念和方法,然后设计出自己独特的理念,并进一步发展他从苏格拉底学到的辩证推理方法。Plato does develop a single coherent worldview because of t he need to develop in a critical fashion such a conceptual framework that would be capable of enunciating all the distinctions one must make in describing reality and yet capable of eliciting the meanings one must have.
::柏拉图确实发展了一个统一一致的世界观,因为需要以一种关键的方式发展这样一个概念框架,能够阐明我们在描述现实时必须作出的所有区别,同时又能够提出必须具有的含义。Plato learned from the Sophists, the I onian scientists and the Milesians but most of all from Socrates. Plato forged a complete philosophical system. He gathered the best of ideas from the Pythagoreans and the other great minds and put together a unified system of thought and ideas.
::柏拉图从索弗主义者、爱奥尼亚科学家和迈尔斯人身上学到了知识,但最重要的是从苏格拉底人那里学到了知识。 柏拉图形成了一个完整的哲学体系。 他收集了来自毕达哥里人和其他伟大思想的最好想法,并形成了一个统一的思想和思想体系。His theory of reality, his metaphysics was the basis for his physics and that was consistent with this theory of knowledge and of virtue. These ideas serve also as the foundations for his ethics and politics. He combined the thinking of Heraclitus who thought that all things that were real were constantly changing and the world of Parmenides who thought that all change was unreal.
::赫拉克利托斯认为,所有真实的东西都在不断变化,帕梅尼迪斯的世界也认为所有变化都是不真实的。 他将赫拉克利托斯的思维与赫拉克利托斯的思维结合起来,赫拉克利托斯认为,所有真实的东西都在不断变化,帕梅尼迪斯的世界也认为所有变化都是不真实的。For Plato the particular concrete world is what it is to the degree it participates in the universals which inform all that is real. To get at primary being, the essence of things one follows science and mathematics for they lead us away from the particular to the universal, the patterns underlying and constituting all that is real.
::对于柏拉图来说,特定的具体世界就是它在多大程度上参与了世界性,而世界性是真实的。 首先,事情的本质是科学和数学,因为它们把我们从特定世界引向普遍世界,也就是所有事实的基础和构成模式。The rational move, reasoning is to go from the:
::理性的举动、理性的推理来自:-
Particulars to essences
::实质的具体细节 -
Concrete to abstract
::具体到抽象 -
Imperfect to perfect
::完美不完美
The soul may ascend to the level of the eternal by an intelligent apprehension of particulars. The soul may become free as it reflects for itself, resign passion for contemplation and fix its eyes on the principles, the ideals, and the eternal forms.
::灵魂可能因为对细节的明智的担忧而升至永恒的水平。 灵魂可能变得自由,因为它能自我反射,放弃思考的激情,并且把目光固定在原则、理想和永恒的形式上。For Plato to know a thing is to understand its purpose: the essence of a thing is its function, this is its good . The essence of a thing is eternal, part of the eternal realm. It is what it is for all eternity. The essence of a thing is linked to the universal and the ideal. Each element in a human’s nature has its function and its end
::柏拉图知道一件事是了解它的目的:事物的精髓是它的作用,这是它的好。事物的精髓是永恒的,是永恒王国的一部分。它就是永恒的。事物的精髓是永恒的。事物的精髓与普世和理想联系在一起。人性中的每个元素都有其功能和目的。Knowledge is not possible through experience but through reason. The universals that are grasped by reason are innate and not learned. Rationalism is a non-empirical process. For Plato what exists is:
::知识不可能通过经验而可能通过理性而获得。 理性掌握的普世性是天生的,而不是从中学习的。 理性是一个非经验的过程。 对于柏拉图来说,存在的东西是:-
God (the
one
) – energy of creation
::真主创造能者--创造能者-- -
Mind (nous)- Ideas - the pattern of creation and all components
::Mind(nous)-想法-创造模式和所有组成部分 -
Matter –world- the stuff of creation- in chaos until transformed into cosmos by Nous
::物质-世界-创造的东西- 在混乱中,直到努斯变成宇宙
Plato’s Social Philosophy and Political Thought
::柏拉图的社会哲学和政治思想The Republic
::共和国共和国 共和国 共和国The Republic is one of the greatest works ever invented by a human being. At some colleges students spend an entire term studying it and all of its intricacies and all of its import. In this work Plato touches upon all the most important questions in Philosophy. He presents a single unified system of ideas in a work that is self referential in as much as it illustrates some of the very things concerning which he is attempting to educate his readers.
::共和国是人类发明的最伟大作品之一,在一些大学,学生们花一整个学期学习它,研究它的所有复杂性和所有含义,在这一研究中,柏拉图涉及哲学中所有最重要的问题,他提出了一个单一的统一思想体系,在一项自我偏向的工作中,它展示了他试图教育读者的一些内容。Plato preferred the rule of those who are best suited to rule rather than to have people ruled by kings, military commanders, wealthy people or tyrants. In particular he did not like democracy as a form of government. Democracy had killed Socrates. Democracy promoted and rested upon the cult of the average who gather as a mob, constitute a majority and conceive of themselves as experts. There is no impulse towards self-criticism and self improvement in democracy because the mob believes that each is correct and that they are the ones to determine everything by voting. No need to change because there is no absolute standard against which any one could measure. There is only the voting and the rule of the majority for whatever reasons or for no reasons at all. The cult of the majority degenerates to the level of the least ambitious and least suited.
::柏拉图更倾向于最适合统治者而非由国王、军事指挥官、富人或暴君统治者统治的人的统治,特别是他不喜欢民主作为政府的一种形式;民主杀害了苏格拉底;民主促进并依靠作为暴民聚集的普通人的崇拜,构成多数人并把自己视为专家;没有推动民主自我批评和自我改进的动力,因为暴民认为每个暴民都是正确的,他们都是通过投票决定一切的人;没有必要改变,因为没有任何人可以衡量的绝对标准;只有投票和多数人统治,无论出于何种原因或没有任何理由;多数人的崇拜会退化到最不宏伟和最不合适的水平。Plato preferred that the whole of society be organized as an organic whole, with each part doing its part to provide for the proper functioning and prosperity of the whole. Those that know best how to do so would organize these social units. Those who are truly the best at doing something would get to do it. This was a meritocracy that Plato favored. In the Greek language of his day it was called “Aristocracy” meaning the rule of the best( aristos). Today that term means the rule of a class of people who inherit their positions. That idea is something towards which Plato was quite definitely opposed.
::柏拉图倾向于将整个社会组织成一个有机的整体,每个部分都尽自己的一份力量为整个社会提供适当的运作和繁荣。那些最清楚如何做到的人会组织这些社会单位。那些真正最擅长做事情的人会去做。这是柏拉图偏爱的精英主义。在他的当日的希腊语中,它被称为“贵族主义 ” , 意谓着最优秀的(贵族)规则。 如今,这个词意味着继承其职位的阶级的统治。 柏拉图对这个想法非常反对。Humans were composed of three parts and they should also be kept functioning properly in relation to one another as an organic whole, with each part doing its proper work.
::人类由三部分组成,它们也应作为有机整体相互保持适当运作,每个部分都从事适当的工作。-
Soul- unity of the whole
::整体精神团结 -
Reason – think, contemplate
::思考,思考,思考 -
Spirit- desires, appetites, drives, instincts
::精神欲望,欲望,驱动力,本能
The Allegory of the Cave
::洞洞的隐喻,Plato believed that there were four levels or approaches to knowledge and genuine understanding. They are illustrated in the Republic in the allegory of the cave and in the divided line.
::柏拉图认为,在知识和真正理解方面有四个层次或方法,这些层次或方法在共和国以洞穴的符号和分界线来说明。-
Level I: guided by images, stories guesses, opinions
::一级:以图像、故事猜想、观点为指导 -
Level II: guided by practical common sense, trial and error approach, practical
::二级:以实际常识、试验和错误方法为指导,切合实际 -
Level III: a theoretical, scientific approach seeking to understand why things are as they are
::三级:一种理论科学方法,试图了解事物为何如此 -
Level IV: philosophical approach, by which theories are themselves evaluated. True understanding
::第四级:哲学方法,据此评估理论本身。
Allegory of the Cave
::洞洞的比喻People in the cave spend their time playing games and identifying the shadows on the wall. They think that the shadows on the wall are the real things. They are happy to win prizes in the cave for being so quick and accurate at identifying the shadows. They do not know that those are just shadows (I) caused by the light crossing over the statues (II) which are themselves representations of the things outside the cave (III) and all of those would not exist if not for the source of all things and all life, the sun.
::洞穴里的人花时间玩游戏,辨别墙上的阴影,他们以为墙上的阴影是真实的,他们很高兴在洞穴里赢得奖品,因为他们在辨别阴影方面如此迅速和精确。他们不知道这些只是雕像上的灯光交叉造成的阴影。 这些雕像本身是洞穴外事物的表象,如果不是所有事物和所有生命的源头,太阳,所有这些都不可能存在。Philosophy Applications
::哲学应用EPISD Critical Thinker Goal
::EPISD 关键思想者目标Are there many people that you know who are at the first two levels, living in a cave and thinking it is the only reality? Thinking that the shadows on the world are the reality and refusing even to turn around and look at what else may be the actual truth? Do you know of people who are happy to have a nice position in the cave and are looking for little beyond that? People who don’t want their thinking to be disturbed even if it is wrong?
::许多人,你知道谁是头两层的, 生活在洞穴里,认为这是唯一的现实? 认为世界的阴影是现实,甚至拒绝转过身去,看其他什么可能是真实的真相吗? 你知道有些人喜欢在洞穴里安居一席,而现在却在寻找更多的东西吗? 即使思想是错误的,他们也不愿意被打扰。-
Plato believed that through careful abstract reasoning we arrive at the real truth. He thought mathematics was the key to unlock the truth about the physical universe. Do you agree with him that humans need to arrive at the true knowledge as separate from opinions, through careful analysis, critical thinking, abstraction, categorization, and inductive reasoning as to ascertain the essence of things?
::柏拉图相信,通过仔细的抽象推理,我们得出了真实的真理。 他认为数学是解开物理宇宙真相的关键。 你同意他的观点吗? 人类需要通过仔细的分析、批判性思考、抽象、分类和感知性推理,确定事物的本质,从而将真正的知识与观点分开,达成真正的知识吗?
Vocabulary
::词汇表EPISD Effective Bilingual Education Goal
::EPISD 有效双语教育目标 -
Socrates' theory
doesn't
claim that people who do wrong do not know that the act is wrong.
