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  • 二、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化、文化

    Objective
    ::目标目标目标目标目标目标目标目标

    Define the meaning of the term culture and explain how material culture and nonmaterial culture differ.
    ::界定文化一词的含义,并解释物质文化和非物质文化如何不同。

    Describe the basic components of culture.
    ::描述文化的基本组成部分。

    Universal Generalizations
    ::普遍化

    Culture is the shared products of human groups.  Products can be physical objects and also the beliefs, values, and behaviors that are shared by the group.  Cultures have specific components such as technology, symbols, values, language, and norms.
    ::文化是人类群体的共同产品,产品可以是实物,也可以是群体共有的信仰、价值观和行为。 文化有特定的组成部分,如技术、符号、价值观、语言和规范。

    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    Describe the key components of culture and give an example of each.
    ::描述文化的关键组成部分,并举例说明其中的每个组成部分。

    What are cultural universals?
    ::什么是文化普遍性?

    How are cultures similar?
    ::文化如何相似?

    How are cultures different?
    ::文化如何不同?

    The Meaning of Culture
    ::文化的意义

    Culture was defined earlier as the symbols, language, beliefs, values, and artifacts that are part of any society. As this definition suggests, there are two basic components of culture: ideas and symbols on the one hand and artifacts (material objects) on the other. The first type, called , includes the values, beliefs, symbols, and language that define a society. The second type, called , includes all the society’s physical objects, such as its tools and technology, clothing, eating utensils, and means of transportation.
    ::文化先前被定义为作为任何社会组成部分的符号、语言、信仰、价值观和文物,正如这一定义所显示的,文化有两个基本组成部分:一方面是思想和符号,另一方面是文物(物质物品),第一类被称为价值观、信仰、符号和界定社会的语言。 第二类被称为包括社会的所有实物,如工具和技术、服装、餐具和运输工具。

    It is estimated by the Encyclopedia of World Cultures that there are about 500+ unique cultures on the earth in our modern world (Gall, T. L. 1997 Gale Pub). This reference manual addresses the following unique characteristics of these cultures: historical origins; location; language; folklore; religion; major holidays; rites of passage; interpersonal relations; living conditions; family; clothing; food; education; heritage; work; sports; entertainment ; crafts and hobbies; and social problems. It is obvious that cultures are complex and require focused efforts to be properly understood. The US’s Central Intelligence Agency produces a free online book called the World Factbook ( ). In 2014 the CIA estimated 267 world entities which make up the mosaic of existing countries worldwide. 
    ::《世界文化百科全书》估计,在现代世界中,地球上约有500多种独特的文化(Gall, T. L. 1997 Gale Pub),该参考手册涉及这些文化的以下独特特征:历史起源;地点;语言;民俗;宗教;主要假日;通行仪式;人际关系;生活条件;家庭;衣着;食物;教育;遗产;工作;体育;娱乐;手工艺和爱好;社会问题。很显然,文化是复杂的,需要集中努力才能得到正确理解。 美国中央情报局制作了一本名为《世界事实手册》的免费在线书。 2014年,中央情报局估计有267个世界实体组成全世界现有国家的组合。

    Enclosed is a summary from the CIA World Factbook. This shows you a quick snapshot of the social structures that underlie our very populated world and the 500+ cultures in it. In Table 1 you can see that collectively Christians make up about one-third of the world populations. But, for the first time ever, Muslims at 23 percent represent the largest religion having surpassed the Roman Catholic Church. The Muslim faith (Islam) grows rapidly because Muslims often practice polygamy and have a higher birthrate than parents in other religions.
    ::随信附上中央情报局《世界概况》的摘要。这向您展示了构成我们人口稠密世界及其500以上文化基础的社会结构的简况。在表1中,您可以看到基督徒集体占世界人口的三分之一。 但是,穆斯林占23%首次代表了超过罗马天主教的最大宗教。 穆斯林信仰(Islam)增长迅速,因为穆斯林经常实行一夫多妻制,其出生率高于其他宗教的父母。

    Table 1: Religions of the World 2010 (Estimated by CIA)*
    ::表1:2010年世界宗教(中央情报局估计)*
    • Christians all combined 33.39%
      • Roman Catholics 16.85%
        ::罗马天主教徒: 16.85%
      • Protestants 6.15%
        ::新新教徒: 6.15%
      • Orthodox 3.96%
        ::东正教: 3.96%
      • Anglicans 1.26%
        ::英国圣公会教徒: 1.26%

      ::基督教徒合起来占33.39% 罗马天主教徒占16.85% 新教徒占6.15% 东正教占3.96% 英国圣公会占1.26%
    • Muslims 22.74%
      ::穆斯林 22.74%
    • Hindus 13.8%
      ::印度印度教教徒: 13.8%
    • Buddhists 6.77%
      ::佛教徒 6.77%
    • Sikhs 0.35%
      ::锡克教教徒:0.35%
    • Jews 0.22%
      ::犹太人 0.22%
    • Baha’is 0.11%
      ::巴哈教徒占0.11%
    • Other 10.95%
      ::其他 10.95%
    • Non-religious 9.66%
      ::非宗教9.66%
    • Atheists 2.01%
      ::无神论者 2.01%

    *Retrieved 16 June 2014 from World data found in CIA World Factbook https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html In Table 2 you can see the commonality of Chinese, Spanish, and English.
    ::* 2014年6月16日取自中央情报局《世界实况手册》中的世界数据:https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html。

    Although the 12.44 percent does not appear to be very high, keep in mind that it’s 12.44 percent of 7+ billion. China has 1.3 billion inhabitants and comprises roughly 1 out of 6 people on the planet (India has about 1.2 billion and almost the same percentage of the world population). Many languages are not listed because there are thousands of dialects and local variations on these major languages. China with 1.3 billion has two forms of Chinese language: Mandarin and Cantonese. Sheer massive numbers in populations speaking Chinese explain part of the data below.
    ::尽管12.44 % 似乎并不高,但请记住,7+10亿人口的12.44 % 。 中国有13亿居民,占全球人口六分之一左右(印度有12亿人口,几乎占世界人口的同样比例 ) 。 许多语言没有被列出,因为这些主要语言有数千种方言和本地差异。 13亿中国有两种形式的中文:普通话和广东话。 大量讲中文的人口可以解释以下部分数据。

    Table 2: Languages of the World 2009 (Estimated by CIA)*
    ::表2:2009年世界语言(中央情报局估计)*
    Language Percent who Speak it World-wide
    Mandarin Chinese                         12.44%  
    Spanish                                         4.85%  
    English                                          4.83%  
    Arabic                                            3.25%  
    Hindi                                             2.68%  
    Bengali                                          2.66%  
    Portuguese                                    2.62%  
    Russian                                         2.12%  
    Japanese                                       1.8%  
    Standard German                            1.33%  
    Japanese                                       1.25%  

    *Retrieved 16 June 2014 from World data found in CIA World Factbook  
    ::* 2014年6月16日从中央情报局《世界概况》中发现的世界数据中检索。

    Table 3 shows that the world’s population has exploded in the last century and continues to grow rapidly. Never in the history of this world have so many numbers of people lived at the same time with so many co-existing and equally valid cultural heritages. World Population Grows 19.97 births per 1,000 - 8.32 deaths per 1,000= 11.65 natural increase (net growth) and you can see simulated real-time population growth chart at http://www.worldometers.info/ . The world’s population is continuing to grow.
    ::表3显示,世界人口在上个世纪已经爆炸,并且继续迅速增长。在当今世界历史上,从未有如此多的人口同时生活在如此众多共同存在和同样有效的文化遗产中。 世界人口每1 000人中有19.97个新生儿,每1 000人中有8.32人死亡,每1 000人中有8.32人死亡。 = 11.65人自然增长(净增长),你可以在http://www.world计量s.info/上看到模拟实时人口增长图。世界人口在继续增长。

    There are clear patterns of growth in the world’s largest countries. For example, Figure 1 lists the 10 most populated countries of the world in 2013 with estimates for future population in 2050. The US ranks 3rd in 2013, but Nigeria makes a jump from 7th to 3rd in 2050 moving the US to rank 4th in population. Interestingly, in 2050, India will rank 1st and China 2nd. Also of interest is the fact that in 2050 the US is the only Western country in the list.
    ::全世界最大的国家都有明显的增长模式。 比如,图1列出了2013年世界人口最多的10个国家,并给出了2050年未来人口估计数。 2013年,美国排名第三,但尼日利亚从2050年的7位上升到3位,将美国提升到4位。 有趣的是,2050年,印度排名第一,中国排名第二。 另外令人感兴趣的是,2050年,美国是唯一的西方国家。

    Figure 1. The Ten Most Populated Countries in the World, 2013 and 2050*
    ::图1. 2013年和2050年世界10个人口最多的国家*

    figure

    *Retrieved 21 May, 2014 from Population Reference Bureau Population Data Sheet
    ::* 2014年5月21日从人口资料局人口数据表检索,2014年5月21日

    Between 2013 and 2050 the top ten largest countries in the world will be non-Western in nature. Table 3 shows that the males and females are not equally distributed throughout the world’s population. In the childhood years there are more males (about 62 million more). In the working years of 15-64 there are 53 million more males. But, in the 65 and older age group, there are far more females with 65 million more. By the time people age into the later years males have died off sooner than females and we find that the worldwide aging experience is dominated more by the female rather than male experience.
    ::2013年至2050年间,世界前十大大国的非西方国家将占世界前十大。表3显示,男性和女性在世界人口中分布不均。在童年,男性人数更多(约6 200万以上 ) ; 在15至64年的劳动年中,男性人数增加5 300万。但在65岁及65岁以上人群中,女性人数多得多,增加了6 500万。 到了人们老年早于女性死亡的时候,男性人数比女性多。 我们发现,全球老龄化经历主要是女性,而不是男性。

    The Components of Culture
    ::文化组成部分

    There are five major components of culture that all cultures have in common.  These include symbols, language, technology, values, and norms.
    ::文化有五大组成部分是所有文化共有的,其中包括符号、语言、技术、价值观和规范。

    Symbols
    ::符号编号

    Every culture is filled with , or things that stand for something else and that often evoke various reactions and emotions. Some symbols are actually types of nonverbal communication, while other symbols are in fact material objects.
    ::每一个文化都充满着,或者代表着其它东西的东西,常常引起各种反应和情绪。 一些符号实际上是非语言交流的类型,而其他符号实际上是物质对象。

    Figure 2.3
    ::图2.3

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商
    The meaning of a gesture may differ from one society to another. This familiar gesture means “OK” in the United States, but in certain parts of Europe it signifies an obscenity. An American using this gesture might very well be greeted with an angry look.
    ::一种姿态的含义可能因社会而异。 这种熟悉的姿态在美国意味着“好 ” , 但在欧洲某些地区却象征着一种淫秽行为。 使用这种姿态的美国人很可能受到愤怒的欢迎。

    Let’s look at nonverbal symbols first. A common one is shaking hands, which is done in some societies but not in others. It commonly conveys friendship and is used as a sign of both greeting and departure. Probably all societies have nonverbal symbols we call , movements of the hand, arm, or other parts of the body that are meant to convey certain ideas or emotions. However, the same gesture can mean one thing in one society and something quite different in another society (Axtell, 1998).  Axtell, R. E. (1998). Gestures: The do’s and taboos of body language around the world . New York, NY: Wiley. In the United States, for example, if we nod our head up and down, we mean yes, and if we shake it back and forth, we mean no. In Bulgaria, however, nodding means no, while shaking our head back and forth means yes! In the United States, if we make an “O” by putting our thumb and forefinger together, we mean “OK,” but the same gesture in certain parts of Europe signifies an obscenity. “Thumbs up” in the United States means “great” or “wonderful,” but in Australia it means the same thing as extending the middle finger in the United States. Certain parts of the Middle East and Asia would be offended if they saw you using your left hand to eat, because they use their left hand for bathroom hygiene.
    ::让我们先看看非言语符号。 一个普通的手是握手,在某些社会是握手,但在另一些社会不是握手。它通常传达友谊,并被用作问候和离开的标志。也许所有社会都有我们称之为非言语符号,手、手臂或身体其他部位的动作,意在传达某些想法或情绪。然而,在保加利亚,同样的手势可能意味着一个社会中的一件事,另一个社会中的某件事也非常不同(Axtell,1998年;Axtell,R.E.(1998)。 手势:世界各地身体语言的确是和禁忌。纽约:纽约:威利。例如,如果我们把头往上和往下打,我们的意思是肯定的。 然而,在保加利亚,同样的手势势意味着不正确,同时摇动我们的头部和另一社会的某件事是肯定的。 在美国,如果我们用我们的拇指和手来做“O ” , 我们的意思是“OK ” ,但欧洲某些地方的手势也是相同的,“在东方, ” 意思是“美的“更深地” 。

    Some of our most important symbols are objects. Here the U.S. flag is a prime example. For most Americans, the flag is not just a piece of cloth with red and white stripes and white stars against a field of blue. Instead, it is a symbol of freedom, democracy, and other American values and, accordingly, inspires pride and patriotism. During the Vietnam War, however, the flag became to many Americans a symbol of war and imperialism. Some burned the flag in protest, prompting angry attacks by bystanders and negative coverage by the news media.
    ::我们最重要的标志中有些是物体。在这里,美国国旗就是一个很好的例子。对大多数美国人来说,国旗不仅仅是一块有红白条纹和白星的布,而不只是一块有红白条纹和白星的布,而是一个蓝色的地盘。 相反,它象征着自由、民主和其他美国价值观,因此,它激发了自豪感和爱国主义。 然而,在越南战争期间,国旗成为许多美国人的战争和帝国主义的象征。 有些人为了抗议而烧毁国旗,激起旁观者的愤怒攻击和新闻媒体的负面报道。

    Other objects have symbolic value for religious reasons. Three of the most familiar religious symbols in many nations are the cross, the Star of David, and the crescent moon, which stand for Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, respectively. Whereas many cultures attach no religious significance to these shapes, for many people across the world they evoke very strong feelings of religious faith. Recognizing this, hate groups have often desecrated these symbols.
    ::由于宗教原因,其他物体具有象征价值。 在许多国家,最熟悉的宗教象征有三个是十字、大卫之星和新月,它们分别代表基督教、犹太教和伊斯兰教。 虽然许多文化对这些形状没有宗教意义,但对全世界许多人来说,它们唤起了非常强烈的宗教信仰感情。 认识到这一点,仇恨团体常常亵渎这些标志。

    As these examples indicate, shared symbols, both nonverbal communication and tangible objects, are an important part of any culture but also can lead to misunderstandings and even hostility. These problems underscore the significance of symbols for social interaction and meaning.
    ::如这些例子所示,共同符号,包括非语言通信和有形物体,是任何文化的重要组成部分,但也可能导致误解,甚至敌意,这些问题突出了社会互动和意义标志的重要性。

    Language
    ::语言语言语言

    Perhaps our most important set of symbols is language. In English, the word chair means something we sit on. In French, the word chaise means the same thing. As long as we agree how to interpret these words, a shared language and thus society are possible. By the same token, differences in languages can make it quite difficult to communicate. For example, imagine you are in a foreign country where you do not know their language and they do not know yours. Worse yet, you forgot to bring your dictionary that translates their language into yours, and vice versa, and your iPhone battery has died. You become lost. How will you get help? What will you do? Is there any way to communicate your plight?
    ::也许我们最重要的符号是语言。英语中,“字椅”是指我们坐着的东西。法语中,“字椅”是指同样的事情。只要我们同意如何解释这些词,共同的语言,社会也是可能的。同样,语言的差异也使得交流变得相当困难。比如,想象你身处一个你不了解自己的语言,也不了解自己的语言的外国。更糟糕的是,你忘记把你的将自己的语言翻译成自己的语言的字典,反之亦然,你的iPhone电池也死了。你迷失了。你会怎样得到帮助?你会怎么做呢?你有什么办法传达你的困境吗?你有什么办法吗?

    As this scenario suggests, language is crucial to communication and thus to any society’s culture. Children learn language from their culture just as they learn about shaking hands, about gestures, and about the significance of the flag and other symbols. Humans have a capacity for language that no other animal species possesses. Our capacity for language in turn helps make our complex culture possible.
    ::正如这一情景所暗示的那样,语言对于沟通至关重要,因此对于任何社会的文化都至关重要。 儿童从自己的文化中学习语言,就像他们学会握手、手势、手势、旗帜和其他标志的重要性一样。 人类拥有其他动物所没有的语言能力。 我们的语言能力反过来又有助于我们复杂的文化。

    Figure 2.4
    ::图2.4

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商

    Language is a key symbol of any culture. Humans have a capacity for language that no other animal species has, and children learn the language of their society just as they learn other aspects of their culture.
    ::语言是任何文化的一个关键象征。 人类拥有一种其他动物物种所没有的语言能力,儿童在学习其文化的其他方面的同时学习其社会的语言。

    In the United States, some people consider a common language so important that they advocate making English the official language of certain cities or states or even the whole country and banning bilingual education in the public schools (Ray, 2007). Ray, S. (2007). Politics over official language in the United States. International Studies, 44, 235–252. Critics acknowledge the importance of English but allege that this movement smacks of anti-immigrant prejudice and would help destroy ethnic subcultures. In 2009, voters in Nashville, Tennessee, rejected a proposal that would have made English the city’s official language and required all city workers to speak in English rather than their native language (Brown, 2009). Brown, R. (2009, January 24). Nashville voters reject a proposal for English-only. The New York Times , p. A12.
    ::在美国,有些人认为一种共同语言非常重要,以至于他们主张将英语作为某些城市或州的官方语言,甚至整个国家的官方语言,并禁止公立学校的双语教育(Ray, 2007年)。 Ray, S. (2007年)。 在美国,政治凌驾于官方语言之上。 国际研究, 44, 235-252。 批评者承认英语的重要性,但声称这一运动具有反移民偏见的味道,有助于破坏种族亚文化。 2009年,田纳西州纳什维尔的选民拒绝了一项提案,该提案本可以将英语作为城市的官方语言,并要求所有城市工人用英语而不是母语(Brown, K2009 Brown, R. (2009年, 2009年, 1月 24日 ) 。 纳什维尔选民拒绝了一项只用英语的建议。 《纽约时报》,第12页。

    Language, of course, can be spoken or written. One of the most important developments in the evolution of society was the creation of written language. Some of the preindustrial societies that anthropologists have studied have written language, while others do not, and in the remaining societies the “written” language consists mainly of pictures, not words.
    ::当然,语言可以说或写,社会演变的最重要发展之一是创造书面语言,一些人类学家研究过的工业前社会有书面语言,而另一些则没有,在其余社会中,“书面”语言主要包括图片,而不是文字。

    Technology
    ::技术 技术

    Technology is the application of scientific knowledge to the making of tools to solve specific problems. Technological advances such as automobiles, airplanes, radio, television, cellular phones, computers, modems, and fax machines have brought major advances and changes to the world. Indeed, 20th century technology has completely—and irreversibly—changed the way people meet, interact, learn, work, play, travel, worship, and do business. Technological information increases exponentially: The entire database of scientific knowledge doubles every several years. This “technological explosion” is due in part to an “Information explosion,” as well as to advances in storage, retrieval, and communication of data. In other words, a cycle occurs: Improvements in technology lead to increases in knowledge and information and, thus, to uncovering the means to create better technology. Consequently, sociologists are concerned with how technological societies will be forced to adapt to the social changes that improvements in technology will continue to bring. ( )
    ::科技就是将科学知识应用于制造解决具体问题的工具,汽车、飞机、无线电、电视、移动电话、计算机、调制解调器和传真机等技术进步给世界带来了重大进步和变化,事实上,20世纪的技术彻底和不可逆转地改变了人们的相遇、互动、学习、工作、游戏、旅行、礼拜和做生意的方式。 技术信息指数性地增长:整个科学知识数据库每隔几年翻一番。这种“技术爆炸”部分是由于“信息爆炸”以及数据储存、检索和通信方面的进步。换句话说,循环发生:技术的改进导致知识和信息的增加,从而发现创造更好技术的手段。因此,社会学家们担心技术社会将如何被迫适应技术进步将继续带来的社会变化。 ()

    Values
    ::价值价值

    Figure 2.10
    ::图2.10

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商

    American culture promotes competition and an emphasis on winning in the sports and business worlds and in other spheres of life. Accordingly, lawsuits over frivolous reasons are common and even expected .
    ::美国文化促进竞争,强调在体育、商业和其他生活领域获胜。 因此,对轻率原因的诉讼是常见的,甚至预期的。

    are another important element of culture and involve judgments of what is good or bad and desirable or undesirable. A culture’s values shape its norms.  The kinds of values a group holds important will determine the character of its people and the types of material and nonmaterial culture the group will create.  In Japan, for example, a central value is group harmony. The Japanese place great emphasis on harmonious social relationships and dislike interpersonal conflict. Individuals are fairly unassertive by American standards, lest they be perceived astrying to force their will upon others (Schneider & Silverman, 2010). Schneider, L., & Silverman, A. (2010).
    ::文化是另一个重要因素,它涉及到对好坏和可取或不可取的事物的判断。文化的价值观决定着它的规范。一个群体持有的重要价值观将决定其人民的特点以及群体将创造的物质和非物质文化类型。例如,在日本,一个中心价值是群体和谐。日本高度重视和谐的社会关系,并不喜欢人际冲突。个人根据美国的标准相当不敏感,以免被人们视为试图将自己的意志强加于他人(Schneider & Silverman,2010年)。Schneider, L., & Silverman, A. (2010年)。

    Norms
    ::规范准则 规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范 规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范规范

    Norms are created by all cultures to enforce their cultural values.  Cultures differ widely in their , or standards and expectations for behaving in specific situations. We already saw that how people behave when drunk stems from society’s expectations of how they should behave when drunk. Norms of drunken behavior influence how we behave when we drink too much.
    ::所有文化都制定了规范,以强制推行其文化价值观。 文化在文化、标准和对特定情况下行为的期望方面差异很大。 我们已经看到,人们喝醉时的行为方式来自社会对喝醉时行为方式的期望。 醉酒行为规范影响着我们喝醉时的行为方式。

    Norms are often divided into two types, and . Formal norms, also called mores (MOOR-ays) and laws , refer to the standards of behavior considered the most important in any society. Examples in the United States include traffic laws, criminal codes, and, in a college context, student behavior codes addressing such things as cheating and hate speech. Informal norms, also called folkways and customs , refer to standards of behavior that are considered less important but still influence how we behave. Table manners are a common example of informal norms, as are such everyday behaviors as how we interact with a cashier and how we ride in an elevator.
    ::规范往往分为两类,而正式规范,也称为 " 更多 " (MOOR-ays)和法律,是指任何社会认为最重要的行为标准。美国的例子包括交通法、刑法,在大学范围内,学生行为守则涉及欺骗和仇恨言论等行为。非正式规范,也称为 " 民俗和习俗 " ,是指被认为不太重要但仍影响我们行为方式的行为标准。表格方式是非正式规范的一个常见例子,例如我们如何与收银员互动和如何乘坐电梯等日常行为。