4.3 社会类型
章节大纲
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Objectives
::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标Describe the types of societies that exist in the world today.
::描述当今世界存在的社会类型。Explain the roles people play in these models of group systems.
::解释人们在这些群体体系模式中扮演的角色。Analyze the similarities and the differences between the three societies.
::分析这三个社会之间的异同。
Universal Generalizations
::普遍化Societies are the largest and most complex groups of people.
::社会是最大和最复杂的人口群体。There are different types of societies that exist in the world today.
::当今世界存在着不同类型的社会。Several factors influence an increase in the division of labor which leads to the formation of different societies.
::有几个因素影响着劳动分工的增加,导致形成不同的社会。
Guiding Questions
::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问What types of societies exist in the world today?
::当今世界存在哪些类型的社会?Describe the types of preindustrial societies?
::描述工业化前社会的类型?What is the significance of the production of manufactured goods in
::生产制成品的意义何在?industrial societies?
::工业社会?How do postindustrial societies and industrial societies differ?
::后工业化社会和工业社会如何不同?What is life like in a preindustrial society today?
::今天,在工业化前的社会里,生活是怎样的?How does industrialization lead to urbanization?
::工业化如何导致城市化?What concepts have sociologists used to contrast societies?
::社会学家用什么概念来对比社会?
TYPES OF SOCIETIES
::社会类型To help understand how modern society developed, sociologists find it useful to distinguish societies according to their type of economy and technology. One of the most useful schemes distinguishes the following types of societies: hunting-and-gathering , horticultural , pastoral , agricultural , and industrial (Nolan & Lenski, 2009). Nolan, P., & Lenski, G. (2009). Human societies: An introduction to macrosociology (11th ed.). Boulder, CO: Paradigm. Some scholars add a final type, postindustrial , to the end of this list. We now outline the major features of each type in turn. summarizes these features.
::为了帮助了解现代社会如何发展,社会学家认为根据经济和技术类型区分社会是有益的,其中最有用的办法之一是区分以下类型的社会:狩猎和采集、园艺、牧业、农业和工业(Nolan & Lenski,2009年,Nolan,P. & Lenski,2009年,G.(2009年);人类社会:宏观社会学介绍(第11版)。Bouder, CO:Paradigmm。一些学者在这份清单的末尾添加了最后一种类型,即工业后。我们现在分别概述每种类型的主要特征。概括这些特征。Summary of Societal Development
::社会发展摘要Type of society Key characteristics Hunting-and-gathering These are small, simple societies in which people hunt and gather food. Because all people in these societies have few possessions, the societies are fairly egalitarian, and the degree of inequality is very low. Horticultural and pastoral Horticultural and pastoral societies are larger than hunting-and-gathering societies. Horticultural societies grow crops with simple tools, while pastoral societies raise livestock. Both types of societies are wealthier than hunting-and-gathering societies, and they also have more inequality and greater conflict than hunting-and-gathering societies. Agricultural These societies grow great numbers of crops, thanks to the use of plows, oxen, and other devices. Compared to horticultural and pastoral societies, they are wealthier and have a higher degree of conflict and of inequality. Industrial Industrial societies feature factories and machines. They are wealthier than agricultural societies and have a greater sense of individualism and a somewhat lower degree of inequality that still remains substantial. Postindustrial These societies feature information technology and service jobs. Higher education is especially important in these societies for economic success. Hunting-and-Gathering Societies
::狩猎和采集社会Beginning about 250,000 years ago, are the oldest ones we know of; few of them remain today, partly because modern societies have encroached on their existence. As the name hunting-and-gathering implies, people in these societies both hunt for food and gather plants and other vegetation. They have few possessions other than some simple hunting-and-gathering equipment. To ensure their mutual survival, everyone is expected to help find food and also to share the food they find. To seek their food, hunting-and-gathering peoples often move from place to place. Because they are nomadic, their societies tend to be quite small, often consisting of only a few dozen people.
::从大约25万年前开始,我们所知道的是最古老的;他们中很少有人留在今天,部分原因是现代社会已经侵蚀了他们的生存。正如狩猎和采集名称所暗示的那样,这些社会的人不仅狩猎食物,还收集植物和其他植物。除了一些简单的狩猎和采集设备之外,他们拥有的物品很少。为了确保他们相互生存,每个人都应该帮助寻找食物,并分享他们找到的食物。为了寻找食物,狩猎和采集的民族常常从地方迁移到其他地方。由于他们是游牧民族,他们的社会往往非常小,通常只有几十人。Beyond this simple summary of the type of life these societies lead, anthropologists have also charted the nature of social relationships in them. One of their most important findings is that hunting-and-gathering societies are fairly egalitarian. Although men do most of the hunting and women most of the gathering, perhaps reflecting the biological differences between the sexes discussed earlier, women and men in these societies are roughly equal. Because hunting-and-gathering societies have few possessions, their members are also fairly equal in terms of wealth and power, as virtually no wealth exists.
::人类学家们除了简单总结这些社会所经历的生活类型外,还绘制了这些社会关系的性质图,其中最重要的发现之一是狩猎和采集社会相当平等,尽管大部分狩猎和采集社会都是男性,大部分集会中大部分是女性,也许反映了前面讨论的两性之间的生物差异,但这些社会中的男女大致是平等的。 由于狩猎和采集社会的财产很少,其成员在财富和权力方面也相当平等,因为实际上不存在任何财富。Horticultural and Pastoral Societies
::园艺和牧师协会Horticultural and pastoral societies both developed about 10,000–12,000 years ago. In , people use hoes and other simple hand tools to raise crops. In , people raise and herd sheep, goats, camels, and other domesticated animals and use them as their major source of food and also, depending on the animal, as a means of transportation. Some societies are either primarily horticultural or pastoral, while other societies combine both forms. Pastoral societies tend to be at least somewhat nomadic, as they often have to move to find better grazing land for their animals. Horticultural societies, on the other hand, tend to be less nomadic, as they are able to keep growing their crops in the same location for some time. Both types of societies often manage to produce a surplus of food from vegetable or animal sources, respectively, and this surplus allows them to trade their extra food with other societies. It also allows them to have a larger population size than hunting-and-gathering societies that often reaches several hundred members.
::园艺和畜牧社会在大约10000—12 000年前就已经发展了。 人们在园艺和畜牧社会中使用毛和其他简单的手工具来种植庄稼。 在园艺和畜牧社会中,人们饲养和放牧绵羊、山羊、骆驼和其他养殖动物,并将它们作为主要的食物来源,并视动物而定,作为运输工具。 有些社会主要为园艺或畜牧,而另一些社会则兼具两种形式。 畜牧社会往往至少有些游牧,因为他们往往不得不为动物寻找更好的牧场。 另一方面,园艺社会往往较少游牧,因为他们能够在同一地点种植作物一段时间。 这两种社会通常都能分别生产来自植物或动物来源的剩余食物,而这种剩余食物允许它们与其他社会进行额外的食物交易。 它还允许它们拥有比通常惠及几百个成员的狩猎和采集社会更大的人口规模。Accompanying the greater complexity and wealth of horticultural and pastoral societies is greater inequality in terms of gender and wealth than is found in hunting-and-gathering societies. In pastoral societies, wealth stems from the number of animals a family owns, and families with more animals are wealthier and more powerful than families with fewer animals. In horticultural societies, wealth stems from the amount of land a family owns, and families with more land are wealthier and more powerful.
::随着园艺和畜牧社会更加复杂和丰富,在性别和财富方面的不平等比狩猎和采集社会更为严重。 在畜牧社会,财富来自于家庭拥有的动物数量,而动物较多的家庭比动物较少的家庭更富有、更强大。 在园艺社会,财富来自于家庭拥有的土地数量,拥有更多土地的家庭更富有、更强大。One other side effect of the greater wealth of horticultural and pastoral societies is greater conflict. As just mentioned, sharing of food is a key norm in hunting-and-gathering societies. In horticultural and pastoral societies, however, wealth (and more specifically, the differences in wealth) leads to disputes and even fighting over land and animals. Whereas hunting-and-gathering peoples tend to be very peaceful, horticultural and pastoral peoples tend to be more aggressive.
::园艺和畜牧社会财富增加的另一个副作用是更大的冲突,如前所述,分享食物是狩猎和采集社会的一个关键规范,但在园艺和畜牧社会中,财富(更具体地说,财富差异)导致纠纷,甚至争夺土地和动物,而狩猎和采集民族往往非常和平,而园艺和畜牧民族则往往更具侵略性。
Horticultural societies often produce an excess of food that allows them to trade with other societies and also to have more members than hunting-and-gathering societies.
::园艺社会往往生产过剩的粮食,使他们能够与其他社会进行贸易,而且比狩猎和采集社会有更多的成员。© Thinkstock
::智商The BedouinThroughout Northern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula live the Bedouin, modern-day nomads. While many different tribes of Bedouin exist, they all share similarities. Members migrate from one area to another, usually in conjunction with the seasons, settling near oases in the hot summer months. They tend to herds of goats, camels, and sheep, and they harvest dates in the fall (Kjeilen).
::在整个北非和阿拉伯半岛,贝都因人是现代游牧民族,虽然有许多不同的贝都因部落存在,但都有相似之处。 成员从一个地区迁移到另一个地区,通常与季节同时迁移,在炎热的夏季月在绿洲附近定居。 他们倾向于牧羊、骆驼和绵羊,在秋天收获(吉林)。In recent years, there has been increased conflict between the Bedouin society and more modernized societies. National borders are harder to cross now than in the past, making the traditional nomadic lifestyle of the Bedouin difficult. The clash of traditions among Bedouin and other residents has led to discrimination and abuse. Bedouin communities frequently have high poverty and unemployment rates, and their members have little formal education (Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada 2005).
::近年来,贝都因社会与较现代化的社会之间的冲突加剧,国家边界比过去更难跨越,贝都因人的传统游牧生活方式更加困难,贝都因人和其他居民之间的传统冲突导致歧视和虐待,贝都因人社区往往贫穷和失业率高,其成员的正规教育很少(加拿大移民和难民委员会,2005年)。The future of the Bedouin is uncertain. Government restrictions on farming and residence are slowly forcing them to integrate into modern society. Although their ancestors have traversed the deserts for thousands of years, the days of the nomadic Bedouin may be at an end.
::贝都因人的未来是不确定的,政府对农耕和居住的限制正在慢慢迫使他们融入现代社会,虽然他们的祖先在沙漠中渡过了数千年,但游牧贝都因人的日子可能已到尽头。
This photo shows a Bedouin family from eastern Oman. How will their society respond to the constraints modern society places on a nomadic lifestyle? (Photo courtesy of Tanenhaus/Wikimedia Commons)
::这张照片显示了阿曼东部的贝都因家庭。 他们的社会如何应对现代社会对游牧生活方式的限制? (Tanenhaus/维基媒体共同语言的Photo礼仪)Agricultural Societies
::农业农业学会developed some 5,000 years ago in the Middle East, thanks to the invention of the plow. When pulled by oxen and other large animals, the plow allowed for much more cultivation of crops than the simple tools of horticultural societies permitted. The wheel was also invented about the same time, and written language and numbers began to be used. The development of agricultural societies thus marked a watershed in the development of human society. Ancient Egypt, China, Greece, and Rome were all agricultural societies, and India and many other large nations today remain primarily agricultural.
::5 000年前,由于种植犁的发明,在中东发展了大约5 000年前。当牛和其他大型动物的拉动下,耕种的作物比园艺社会允许的简单工具多得多。轮子也是同时发明的,并开始使用书面语言和数字。农业社会发展因此成为人类社会发展的一个分水岭。古埃及、中国、希腊和罗马都是农业社会,印度和其他许多大国如今仍然以农业为主。We have already seen that the greater food production of horticultural and pastoral societies led them to become larger than hunting-and-gathering societies and to have more trade and greater inequality and conflict. Agricultural societies continue all these trends. First, because they produce so much more food than horticultural and pastoral societies, they often become quite large, with their numbers sometimes reaching into the millions. Second, their huge food surpluses lead to extensive trade, both within the society itself and with other societies. Third, the surpluses and trade both lead to degrees of wealth unknown in the earlier types of societies and thus to unprecedented inequality, exemplified in the appearance for the first time of peasants, people who work on the land of rich landowners. Finally, agricultural societies’ greater size and inequality also produce more conflict. Some of this conflict is internal, as rich landowners struggle with each other for even greater wealth and power, and peasants sometimes engage in revolts. Other conflict is external, as the governments of these societies seek other markets for trade and greater wealth.
::我们已经看到,园艺和畜牧社会粮食生产的增加导致它们变得更大,超过狩猎和采集社会,并带来更多的贸易和更大的不平等与冲突。农业社会继续所有这些趋势。 首先,由于农业社会生产比园艺和畜牧社会多得多的粮食,它们往往变得相当大,其数量有时达到数百万人。 其次,它们的巨大粮食盈余导致社会内部和与其他社会的广泛贸易。 第三,盈余和贸易导致早些类型的社会所不知道的财富水平,从而导致前所未有的不平等,这体现在农民,即那些在富有土地所有者土地上工作的人第一次出现。 最后,农业社会规模更大,不平等也产生了更多的冲突。 这场冲突有些是内部冲突,因为富地土地所有者为了更大的财富和权力而相互争斗,农民有时进行反抗。 其他冲突是外部冲突,因为这些社会的政府寻求其他贸易和更大财富的市场。If gender inequality becomes somewhat greater in horticultural and pastoral societies than in hunting-and-gathering ones, it becomes very pronounced in agricultural societies. An important reason for this is the hard, physically taxing work in the fields, much of it using large plow animals, that characterizes these societies. Then, too, women are often pregnant in these societies, because large families provide more bodies to work in the fields and thus more income. Because men do more of the physical labor in agricultural societies—labor on which these societies depend—they have acquired greater power over women (Brettell & Sargent, 2009). Brettell, C. B., & Sargent, C. F. (Eds.). (2009). Gender in cross-cultural perspective (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. In the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, agricultural societies are much more likely than hunting-and-gathering ones to believe men should dominate women (see ).
::如果在园艺和牧业社会中,男女不平等比在狩猎和采集方面更加明显,那么在农业社会中,男女不平等就变得非常明显,其重要原因是田间艰苦的体力劳动,大部分使用大型耕种动物,而这正是这些社会的特点。然后,在这些社会中,妇女往往怀孕,因为大家庭为田间工作提供了更多的身体,从而增加了收入。由于男子在农业社会——这些社会所依赖的实验室——从事更多的体力劳动,他们获得了对妇女更大的权力(Bretell和Sargent,2009年,Brettell,C.B.,和Sargent,C.F.(Eds.))(2009年),从跨文化角度看性别问题(第5版)。上萨德尔河,NJ:Rentice Hall。在标准跨文化抽样中,农业社会比狩猎和采集者更可能认为男子应该支配妇女(见E.)。Type of Society and Presence of Cultural Belief That Men Should Dominate Women
::男子应当支配妇女的社会类型和存在的文化信仰类型
Source: Data from Standard Cross-Cultural Sample.
::资料来源:来自标准跨文化抽样的数据。Industrial Societies
::工业学会emerged in the 1700s as the development of machines and then factories replaced the plow and other agricultural equipment as the primary mode of production. The first machines were steam- and water-powered, but eventually, of course, electricity became the main source of power. The growth of industrial societies marked such a great transformation in many of the world’s societies that we now call the period from about 1750 to the late 1800s the Industrial Revolution. This revolution has had enormous consequences in almost every aspect of society, some for the better and some for the worse.
::20世纪70年代,机器的发展成为机器的发展,然后工厂取代了作为主要生产方式的犁和其他农业设备。 第一批机器是蒸汽和水力发电,但当然,电力最终成为主要电力来源。 工业社会的增长标志着世界许多社会如此巨大的变革,我们现在称之为1750年代到1800年代末期的工业革命。 这一革命在社会几乎每个方面都产生了巨大的后果,有些是更好的,有些则是更糟糕的。On the positive side, industrialization brought about technological advances that improved people’s health and expanded their life spans. As noted earlier, there is also a greater emphasis in industrial societies on individualism, and people in these societies typically enjoy greater political freedom than those in older societies. Compared to agricultural societies, industrial societies also have lowered economic and gender inequality. In industrial societies, people do have a greater chance to pull themselves up by their bootstraps than was true in earlier societies, and rags-to-riches stories continue to illustrate the opportunity available under industrialization. That said, we will see in later chapters that economic and gender inequality remains substantial in many industrial societies.
::从积极的一面看,工业化带来了技术进步,改善了人们的健康,延长了他们的寿命。 如前所述,工业社会也更加强调个人主义,这些社会的人通常比老年社会的人享有更大的政治自由。 与农业社会相比,工业社会也降低了经济和性别不平等。 在工业社会,人们确实比以前的社会有更多的机会用靴子拉起脚来,而富人的故事也继续说明工业化时代的机遇。 说到此,我们将在后面的章节中看到,许多工业社会的经济和性别不平等依然严重。On the negative side, industrialization meant the rise and growth of large cities and concentrated poverty and degrading conditions in these cities, as the novels of Charles Dickens poignantly remind us. This urbanization changed the character of social life by creating a more impersonal and less traditional Gesellschaft society. It also led to riots and other urban violence that, among other things, helped fuel the rise of the modern police force and forced factory owners to improve workplace conditions. Today industrial societies consume most of the world’s resources, pollute its environment to an unprecedented degree, and have compiled nuclear arsenals that could undo thousands of years of human society in an instant.
::在消极方面,工业化意味着大城市的崛起和增长,以及这些城市的集中贫穷和有辱人格的条件,正如查尔斯·狄更斯的小说提醒我们的那样。 这种城市化通过创造一个更非人性化和不太传统的Gesellschaft社会改变了社会生活的特征。 它还导致暴动和其他城市暴力,除其他外,这些暴力有助于推动现代警察部队的崛起,迫使工厂业主改善工作场所的条件。 如今,工业社会消耗了世界大部分资源,污染了环境达到前所未有的程度,并汇编了核武库,这些武库可以瞬间摧毁人类社会数千年的历史。
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Postindustrial Societies
::工业后社会协会We are increasingly living in what has been called the information technology age (or just information age ), as wireless technology vies with machines and factories as the basis for our economy. Compared to industrial economies, we now have many more service jobs, ranging from housecleaning to secretarial work to repairing computers. Societies in which this transition is happening are moving from an industrial to a postindustrial phase of development. In , then, information technology and service jobs have replaced machines and manufacturing jobs as the primary dimension of the economy (Bell, 1999). Bell, D. (Ed.). (1999). The coming of post-industrial society: A venture in social forecasting . New York, NY: Basic Books. If the car was the sign of the economic and social times back in the 1920s, then the smartphone or netbook/laptop is the sign of the economic and social future in the early years of the 21st century. If the factory was the dominant workplace at the beginning of the 20th century, with workers standing at their positions by conveyor belts, then cell phone, computer, and software companies are dominant industries at the beginning of the 21st century, with workers, almost all of them much better educated than their earlier factory counterparts, huddled over their wireless technology at home, at work, or on the road. In short, the Industrial Revolution has been replaced by the Information Revolution, and we now have what has been called an information society (Hassan, 2008). Hassan, R. (2008). The information society: Cyber dreams and digital nightmares . Malden, MA: Polity.
::我们越来越多地生活在所谓的信息技术时代(或仅仅是信息时代)中,作为无线技术,以机器和工厂作为我们经济的基础。与工业经济相比,我们现在有更多的服务工作,从清洁家庭到秘书工作到修理计算机。在这种转型正在发生的社会正在从工业阶段向工业化后发展阶段转变。在那时,信息技术和服务工作取代了机器和制造工作,成为经济的主要方面(贝尔,1999年,贝尔,D.(Ed.)(1999年)。后工业社会的到来:数字社会预测中的冒险。纽约,纽约:基础书籍。如果汽车是20世纪20年代经济和社会时代的标志,那么在21世纪初,智能手机或网络/笔记本/笔记本是经济社会未来的标志。在20世纪初,如果工厂是占主导地位的工作场所,工人通过传送带,然后是手机,计算机和软件公司在21世纪初就成为主导产业的行业。在革命初期,工人们在工业革命中的梦想,在20世纪初,他们中间的信息被取代了。 在革命中,他们中间的工人们们们在革命中,在革命中,在革命中, 已经学会了他们的工作。
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As part of postindustrialization in the United States, many manufacturing companies have moved their operations from U.S. cities to overseas sites. Since the 1980s, this process has raised unemployment in cities, many of whose residents lack the college education and other training needed in the information sector. Partly for this reason, some scholars fear that the information age will aggravate the disparities we already have between the “haves” and “have-nots” of society, as people lacking a college education will have even more trouble finding gainful employment than they do now (W. J. Wilson, 2009). Wilson, W. J. (2009). The economic plight of inner-city black males. In E. Anderson (Ed.), Against the wall: Poor, young, black, and male (pp. 55–70). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. In the international arena, postindustrial societies may also have a leg up over industrial or, especially, agricultural societies as the world moves ever more into the information age.
::作为美国后工业化的一部分,许多制造业公司已经将其业务从美国城市转移到海外。 自1980年代以来,这一过程提高了城市失业率,许多城市居民缺乏信息部门所需的大学教育和其他培训。 部分原因是,一些学者担心信息时代会加剧我们已经存在的社会“富人”和“穷人”之间的差距,因为缺乏大学教育的人比现在更难找到有酬工作(W.J.Wilson,2009年)。Wilson,W.J.(2009年),E.Anderson(E.Anderson,E.Anderson,),“在墙上:贫穷、青年、黑人和男性(pp.55-70))。费城:宾夕法尼亚大学出版社。 在国际舞台上,后工业社会可能也比现在更难以找到有酬工作,特别是农业社会,因为世界进入信息时代的时间越来越长。
Societies are classified according to their development and use of technology. For most of human history, people lived in preindustrial societies characterized by limited technology and low production of goods. After the Industrial Revolution, many societies based their economies around mechanized labor, leading to greater profits and a trend toward greater social mobility. At the turn of the new millennium, a new type of society emerged. This postindustrial, or information, society is built on digital technology and non-material goods. http://cnx.org/contents/afe4332a-c97f-4fc4-be27-4e4d384a32d8@7.20:17/Introduction_to_Sociology
::在人类历史上,大部分人生活在工业化前的社会中,其特点是技术有限,货物生产量低。工业革命后,许多社会的经济以机械化劳动为主,导致利润增加,社会流动性增加。在新千年到来之际,出现了一种新型社会。后工业化,即信息,社会以数字技术和非物质产品为基础。http://cnx.org/contents/afe4332a-c97f-4fc4-be27-4e4d384a32d8@7.20:17/Introducation_to_socilogy。http://cnx.org/contents/afe4332a-c97f-4fc4-be27-4e4d384a32d8@7.20:17/Introducation_to_socilogy。
Key Takeaways
::密钥外出-
The major types of societies historically have been hunting-and-gathering, horticultural, pastoral, agricultural, industrial, and postindustrial.
::历史上主要类型的社会是狩猎和采集、园艺、牧业、农业、工业和工业后社会。 -
As societies developed and grew larger, they became more unequal in terms of gender and wealth and also more competitive and even warlike with other societies.
::随着社会的发展和壮大,她们在性别和财富方面更加不平等,而且与其他社会竞争更加激烈,甚至交战更加激烈。 -
Postindustrial society emphasizes information technology but also increasingly makes it difficult for individuals without college educations to find gainful employment.
::后工业化社会强调信息技术,但也日益使没有大学教育的个人难以找到有酬职业。
For Your Review
::供您审阅-
Explain why societies became more unequal in terms of gender and wealth as they developed and became larger.
::解释为什么随着社会的发展和壮大,在性别和财富方面,社会更加不平等。 -
Explain why societies became more individualistic as they developed and became larger.
::解释为什么随着社会的发展和规模的扩大,社会变得更加个人主义。 -
Describe the benefits and disadvantages of industrial societies as compared to earlier societies.
::说明工业社会与早先的社会相比的利弊。
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The major types of societies historically have been hunting-and-gathering, horticultural, pastoral, agricultural, industrial, and postindustrial.