8.1 偏差
Section outline
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Objectives
::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标Explain the nature and social functions of deviance.
::解释偏离的性质和社会功能。Compare the proposed theories to explain the nature of deviance.
::比较拟议的理论来解释偏离的性质。Analyze the role sanctions play in maintaining social stability.
::分析制裁在维持社会稳定方面的作用。
Universal Generalizations
::普遍化A society without deviance is an impossibility.
::没有偏差的社会是不可能的。Social control cannot be achieved all the time.
::社会控制不可能一直实现。Every society has numerous norms that govern behavior.
::每个社会都有许多规范来规范行为。Not all norms violations are considered deviant in behavior.
::并非所有违反规范的行为都被视为行为不正常。What is considered deviant in one society may not be considered deviant in another society.
::一个社会认为的异常情况在另一个社会可能不被视为异常情况。Deviance helps to define the limits of appropriate behavior.
::偏离有助于界定适当行为的限度。Deviance provides respected jobs for wide range of people.
::偏离为广大人民提供了受人尊重的工作。
Guiding Questions
::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问What are the social functions of deviance?
::偏离的社会功能是什么?How do sociologists and criminologist identify the nature of deviance?
::社会学家和犯罪学家如何辨别偏差的性质?How do the proposed theories of deviance help to explain deviant behavior?
::如何解释异常行为?
Social Control and the Relativity of Deviance
::社会控制和迁离相对性Learning Objectives
::学习目标-
Define deviance, crime, and social control.
::定义偏离、犯罪和社会控制。 -
Understand why Émile Durkheim said deviance is normal.
::知道为什么埃米尔·杜尔克海姆说 叛变是正常的 -
Understand what is meant by the relativity of deviance.
::理解异端相对论意味着什么。
is behavior that violates social norms and arouses negative social reactions. Some behavior is considered so harmful that governments enact written laws that ban the behavior. is behavior that violates these laws and is certainly an important type of deviance that concerns many Americans.
::有些行为被认为非常有害,以至于政府颁布了禁止这种行为的成文法。 这种行为就是违反这些法律的行为,而且肯定也是许多美国人关注的一个重要的偏差类型。The fact that both deviance and crime arouse negative social reactions reminds us that every society needs to ensure that its members generally obey social norms in their daily interaction. refers to ways in which a society tries to prevent and sanction behavior that violates norms. Just as a society like the United States has informal and formal norms, so does it have informal and formal social control. Generally, informal social control is used to control behavior that violates informal norms, and formal social control is used to control behavior that violates formal norms . We typically decline to violate informal norms, if we even think of violating them in the first place, because we fear risking the negative reactions of other people. These reactions, and thus examples of informal social control, include anger, disappointment, ostracism, and ridicule. Formal social control in the United States typically involves the legal system (police, judges and prosecutors, corrections officials) and also, for businesses, the many local, state, and federal regulatory agencies that constitute the regulatory system.
::反常和犯罪引起负面的社会反应这一事实提醒我们,每个社会都需要确保其成员在日常交往中普遍遵守社会规范。 指的是一个社会试图预防和制裁违反规范的行为的方式。 就像美国这样的社会有非正式和正式规范,它也有非正式和正式的社会控制。 一般来说,非正式的社会控制被用来控制违反非正式规范的行为,正式的社会控制被用来控制违反正式规范的行为。 我们通常拒绝违反非正式规范,如果我们甚至首先想到违反非正式规范,因为我们害怕其他人的消极反应。 这些反应,以及非正式社会控制的例子,包括愤怒、失望、排斥和嘲讽。 美国的正式社会控制通常涉及法律制度(警察、法官和检察官、惩戒官员)以及构成监管体系的许多地方、州和联邦管理机构。Social control is never perfect, and so many norms and people exist that there are always some people who violate some norms. In fact, Émile Durkheim (1895/1962), Durkheim, É. (1962). The rules of sociological method (Ed. S. Lukes). New York, NY: Free Press. (Original work published 1895) a founder of sociology , stressed that a society without deviance is impossible for at least two reasons. First, the collective conscience is never strong enough to prevent all rule breaking. Even in a “society of saints,” such as a monastery, he said, rules will be broken and negative social reactions aroused. Second, because deviance serves several important functions for society, any given society “invents” deviance by defining certain behaviors as deviant and the people who commit them as deviants. Because Durkheim thought deviance was inevitable for these reasons, he considered it a normal part of every healthy society.
::社会控制从来就不是十全十美的,因此存在着许多规范和人,以致总是有人违反某些规范。事实上,埃米尔·杜尔凯姆(1895/1962),杜尔凯姆(Durkhim),《社会学方法规则》(Ed.S.Lukes),(1962),《社会学规则》。 纽约:自由新闻(S.Lukes),社会学创始人,(1895年出版的《原件》),强调一个没有偏差的社会至少出于两个原因是不可能实现的。 首先,集体良知从来不足以阻止所有规则的破碎。 他说,即使在修道院这样的“圣徒社会”中,规则也会被打破,消极的社会反应也会被激起。 其次,由于偏执为社会的若干重要功能,任何特定社会都会“发明”反常行为,将某些行为定义为异常行为,而实施这些行为的人则被视为异常行为。 由于这些原因,杜尔克海姆认为这种思想是不可避免的,因此他认为这是每个健康社会的正常的一部分。Although deviance is normal in this regard, it remains true that some people are more likely than others to commit it. It is also true that some locations within a given society have higher rates of deviance than other locations; for example, U.S. cities have higher rates of violent crime than do rural areas. Still, Durkheim’s monastery example raises an important point about the relativity of deviance: whether a behavior is considered deviant depends on the circumstances in which the behavior occurs and not on the behavior itself. Although talking might be considered deviant in a monastery, it would certainly be considered very normal elsewhere. If an assailant, say a young male, murders someone, he faces arrest, prosecution, and, in many states, possible execution. Yet if a soldier kills someone in wartime, he may be considered a hero. Killing occurs in either situation, but the context and reasons for the killing determine whether the killer is punished or given a medal.
::虽然在这方面,偏离是正常的,但某些人比其他人更可能做出这种行为。同样,某个社会的某些地方的偏离率也高于其他地点;例如,美国城市的暴力犯罪率高于农村地区。 尽管如此,杜尔克海姆修道院的榜样提出了偏离相对性的一个重要观点:行为是否被视为异常取决于行为发生的环境,而不是行为本身。 尽管在修道院里谈话可能被视为异常,但在其他地方肯定会被认为是非常正常的。 如果袭击者,比如年轻男性,谋杀某个人,他将面临逮捕、起诉,在许多州,他可能会被处决。 但如果士兵在战时杀死某人,他可能被视为英雄。 杀戮在两种情况下都会发生,但杀戮的背景和原因决定杀手是受到处罚还是获得奖牌。
Deviance is also relative in two other ways. First, it is relative in space : a given behavior may be considered deviant in one society but acceptable in another society. Sexual acts condemned in some societies are often practiced in others. Second, deviance is relative in time : a behavior in a given society may be considered deviant in one time period but acceptable many years later; conversely, a behavior may be considered acceptable in one time period but deviant many years later. In the late 1800s, many Americans used cocaine, marijuana, and opium, because they were common components of over-the-counter products for symptoms like depression, insomnia, menstrual cramps, migraines, and toothaches. Coca-Cola originally contained cocaine and, perhaps not surprisingly, became an instant hit when it went on sale in 1894 (Goode, 2008). Goode, E. (2008). Drugs in American society . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Today, of course, all three drugs are illegal.
::偏差在另外两种方式上也是相对的。 首先,它是空间上的相对关系:一种特定行为可能被视为一个社会中的异常行为,但在另一个社会中是可以接受的。在一些社会中,谴责的性行为经常在另一些社会中发生。第二,偏差在时间上是相对的:在某一社会中,一种行为可能被视为一个时期的异常行为,但在很多年后可以被接受;反之,一种行为可能被视为一个时期的可接受行为,但在很多年之后是异常的。在1800年代末期,许多美国人使用可卡因、大麻和鸦片,因为它们是诸如抑郁症、失眠症、月经抽搐、偏头痛和牙痛等反面产品的共同成分。 Coca-Cola最初含有可卡因,也许并不令人惊讶的是,当它于1894年出售时,这三种药物都立即被击中(Goode,2008年,E.2008年)。纽约州:Mcgraw-Hill。今天,这三种药物当然都是非法的。The relativity of deviance in all these ways is captured in a famous statement by sociologist Howard S. Becker (1963, p. 9), Becker, H. S. (1963). Outsiders: Studies in the sociology of deviance . New York, NY: Free Press. who wrote several decades ago that deviance is not a quality of the act the person commits, but rather a consequence of the application by others of rules or sanctions to an “offender.” The deviant is one to whom that label has been successfully applied; deviant behavior is behavior that people so label.
::社会学家霍华德·贝克尔(Howard S. Becker,1963年,第9页),贝克尔(H. S.),(1963年),《外人:偏离社会学研究》,纽约,纽约:自由新闻。 几十年前,他写道,偏离不是个人行为的质量,而是其他人对“罪犯”实施规则或制裁的结果。 反常是这个标签被成功应用的人;反常行为是人们这样认为的行为。This insight raises some provocative possibilities for society’s response to deviance and crime. First, harmful behavior committed by corporations and wealthy individuals may not be considered deviant, perhaps because “respectable” people engage in them. Second, prostitution and other arguably less harmful behaviors may be considered very deviant because they are deemed immoral or because of bias against the kinds of people (poor and nonwhite) thought to be engaging in them. These considerations yield several questions that need to be answered in the study of deviance. First, why are some individuals more likely than others to commit deviance? Second, why do rates of deviance differ within social categories such as gender, race, social class, and age? Third, why are some locations more likely than other locations to have higher rates of deviance? Fourth, why are some behaviors more likely than others to be considered deviant? Fifth, why are some individuals and those from certain social backgrounds more likely than other individuals to be considered deviant and punished for deviant behavior? Sixth and last but certainly not least, what can be done to reduce rates of violent crime and other serious forms of deviance? The sociological study of deviance and crime aims to answer all of these questions.
::这种洞察力为社会应对异常和犯罪提供了一些挑衅性的可能性。 首先,公司和富人犯下的有害行为可能不会被视为异常行为,或许是因为“受尊重的”人参与这种行为。 其次,卖淫和其他可能较少的有害行为可能被视为非常异常行为,因为它们被视为不道德,或者由于对被认为参与这些行为的各类人(穷人和非白人)的偏见而被视为非常异常行为。这些考虑产生了几个需要在异常行为研究中予以回答的问题。第一,为什么某些个人比其他人更可能实施异常行为?第二,为什么在性别、种族、社会阶级和年龄等社会类别中,异常行为率不同?第三,为什么某些地方比其他地方更有可能出现较高的异常率?第四,为什么某些行为比其他人更可能被视为异常行为?第五,为什么某些个人和某些社会背景的人比其他人更有可能被视为异常和因异常行为而受到惩罚?第六,最后,但肯定不是最不重要的一点是,可以做些什么来降低暴力犯罪率和所有严重异常问题的答案?Explaining Deviance
::解释偏离Why does deviance occur? How does it affect a society? Since the early days of sociology, scholars have developed theories attempting to explain what deviance and crime mean to society. These theories can be grouped according to the three major sociological paradigms: functionalism, symbolic interactionism, and conflict theory.
::为何出现偏差?它如何影响社会?自社会学早期以来,学者们就发展了理论,试图解释偏差和犯罪对社会意味着什么。 这些理论可以按照三大社会学范式 — — 功能主义、象征性互动主义和冲突理论 — — 进行分类。Functionalist Perpective
::外观Sociologists who follow the functionalist approach are concerned with how the different elements of a society contribute to the whole. They view deviance as a key component of a functioning society. Strain theory, social disorganization theory, and cultural deviance theory represent three functionalist perspectives on deviance in society.
::遵循功能论方法的社会学家关注社会的不同组成部分如何为整体作出贡献,他们认为偏差是社会正常运转的关键组成部分。 斯特兰理论、社会分裂理论和文化偏差理论代表了社会偏差的三个功能论观点。Émile Durkheim: The Essential Nature of Deviance
::埃米尔·杜尔克海姆:驱逐的基本性质Émile Durkheim believed that deviance is a necessary part of a successful society. One way deviance is functional, he argued, is that it challenges people’s present views (1893). For instance, when black students across the United States participated in “sit-ins” during the civil rights movement, they challenged society’s notions of segregation. Moreover, Durkheim noted, when deviance is punished, it reaffirms currently held social norms, which also contributes to society (1893). Seeing a student given detention for skipping class reminds other high schoolers that playing hooky isn’t allowed and that they, too, could get detention.
::埃米尔·杜尔克海姆认为,偏离是成功社会的必要部分。 他认为,一种偏离是功能性的。 一种方法就是质疑人们目前的观点(1893年 ) 。 比如,当美国各地的黑人学生在民权运动期间参与“静坐 ” , 他们挑战社会隔离的概念。 此外,杜尔克海姆指出,当偏离行为受到惩罚时,它重申了目前持有的社会规范,这也对社会有所帮助(1893年 ) 。 看到一个学生因逃课而被拘留,提醒其他高中生说,打课是不允许的,他们也可能被拘留。Robert Merton: Strain Theory
::罗伯特·默顿:斯特兰理论Sociologist Robert Merton agreed that deviance is an inherent part of a functioning society, but he expanded on Durkheim’s ideas by developing strain theory , which notes that access to socially acceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person conforms or deviates. Strain theory notes deviance as the natural outgrowth of the values, norms, and structure of society. From birth, we’re encouraged to achieve the “American Dream” of financial success. A woman who attends business school, receives her MBA, and goes on to make a million-dollar income as CEO of a company is said to be a success. However, not everyone in our society stands on equal footing. A person may have the socially acceptable goal of financial success but lack a socially acceptable way to reach that goal. According to Merton’s theory, an entrepreneur who can’t afford to launch his own company may be tempted to embezzle from his employer for start-up funds. Another example is the high value education has in American society. According to Merton's theory, a person may not be able to find a job because of social conditions or because they lack a higher education. Still despite these issues, an individual is expected to find a job and society judges them based on how well they do.
::社会学家罗伯特·默顿(Robert Merton)同意,偏离是社会运转正常的一个固有部分,但他通过发展紧张理论扩大了杜尔克海姆的想法,他通过发展压力理论扩大了杜尔克海姆的想法,该理论指出,获得社会可接受的目标在确定一个人是否符合或偏离社会目标方面起着一定作用。 斯特兰理论指出,偏离是社会价值观、规范和结构的自然产物。 斯特兰理论指出,偏离是社会价值观、规范和结构的自然产物。 从一开始就鼓励我们实现金融成功的“美国梦 ” 。 上商学院、接受MBA,并像公司首席执行官那样继续创造百万美元收入的妇女据说是成功的。 然而,我们社会上并非每个人都站在平等地位上。 一个人可能拥有社会上可接受的财政成功目标,但缺乏一种社会上可接受的达到这一目标的途径。 根据默顿的理论,一个没有能力启动自己的公司的企业家可能会被诱惑为启动资金而从雇主的“美国梦”。 另一个例子是美国社会中的高价值教育。 根据默顿的理论,一个人可能无法找到工作是因为社会条件或者他们缺乏高额。When individuals are strain due to incompatible goals and purpose, they fall victim to anomie. Anomie is the situation that emerges when the norms of society are unclear and no longer applies to a given situation.
::当个人由于不相容的目的和目的而承受压力时,他们就会成为厌食症的受害者。 厌食症是社会规范不明确、不再适用于特定情况时出现的情况。Merton defined five ways that people respond to this gap between having a socially accepted goal but no socially accepted way to pursue it.
::Merton界定了五种方式,人们用五种方式应对社会接受的目标与社会接受的目标之间的差距。-
Conformity: Those who conform choose not to deviate. They pursue their goals to the extent that they can through socially accepted mean
::守法:守法者选择不偏离,他们追求自己的目标,只要他们能够通过社会接受的卑鄙手段 -
Innovation: Those who innovate pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate means by instead using criminal or deviant means.
::创新:创新者追求的是他们无法通过合法手段实现的目标,而是使用犯罪或异常手段。 -
Ritualism: People who ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them through socially acceptable ways. These members of society focus on conformity rather than attaining a distant dream.
::传统主义:在通过社会可接受的方式达到目标之前,仪式性地降低目标的人。 这些社会成员关注的是一致性,而不是实现遥远的梦想。 -
Retreatism
: Others retreat and reject society’s goals and means. Some beggars and street people have withdrawn from society’s goal of financial success.
::后退主义:其他人则退缩并拒绝社会的目标和手段。 一些乞丐和街头流浪者已经退出了社会财政成功的目标。 -
Rebellion
: A handful of people rebel, replacing a society’s goals and means with their own. Terrorists or freedom fighters look to overthrow a society’s goals through socially unacceptable means.
::叛乱:一小撮人反抗,用他们自己的目标和手段取代社会的目标和手段。 恐怖分子或自由战士希望通过社会无法接受的手段推翻社会的目标。
Social Disorganization Theory
::社会分裂理论Developed by researchers at the University of Chicago in the 1920s and 1930s, social disorganization theory asserts that crime is most likely to occur in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control. An individual who grows up in a poor neighborhood with high rates of drug use, violence, teenage delinquency, and deprived parenting is more likely to become a criminal than an individual from a wealthy neighborhood with a good school system and families who are involved positively in the community.
::20世纪20年代和1930年代芝加哥大学研究人员在芝加哥大学开发的社会分裂理论认为,犯罪最可能发生在社会联系薄弱和缺乏社会控制的社区。 在一个吸毒、暴力、青少年犯罪和被剥夺父母身份率高的贫困社区长大的人比一个富裕社区、学校系统良好和家庭积极参与社区生活的人更有可能成为罪犯。
Proponents of social disorganization theory believe that individuals who grow up in impoverished areas are more likely to participate in deviant or criminal behaviors. (Photo courtesy of Apollo 1758/Wikimedia Commons)
::社会分裂理论的支持者认为,在贫困地区成长的个人更有可能参与异常或犯罪行为。 (阿波罗1758/维基媒体公域的Photo礼仪)Social disorganization theory points to broad social factors as the cause of deviance. A person isn’t born a criminal, but becomes one over time, often based on factors in his or her social environment. Research into social disorganization theory can greatly influence public policy. For instance, studies have found that children from disadvantaged communities who attend preschool programs that teach basic social skills are significantly less likely to engage in criminal activity.
::社会组织不健全理论指出,广泛的社会因素是造成社会失常的原因。 一个人不是天生的罪犯,而是逐渐变成罪犯,往往基于其社会环境的因素。 对社会组织不健全理论的研究可以极大地影响公共政策。 比如,研究发现,参加传授基本社会技能的学前班的弱势社区儿童从事犯罪活动的可能性要小得多。Cultural Deviance Theory
::文化偏离理论Cultural deviance theory suggests that conformity to the prevailing cultural norms of lower-class society causes crime. Researchers Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay (1942) studied crime patterns in Chicago in the early 1900s. They found that violence and crime were at their worst in the middle of the city and gradually decreased the farther one traveled from the urban center toward the suburbs. Shaw and McKay noticed that this pattern matched the migration patterns of Chicago citizens. New immigrants, many of them poor and lacking knowledge of English, lived in neighborhoods inside the city. As the urban population expanded, wealthier people moved to the suburbs, leaving behind the less privileged.
::文化偏离理论表明,符合下层社会流行的文化规范会引起犯罪。研究者Clifford Shaw和Henry McKay(1982年)研究了19世纪初在芝加哥的犯罪模式,发现暴力和犯罪在城市中部最为严重,并逐渐减少了从城市中心向郊区迁移的距离。Shaw和McKay指出,这种模式与芝加哥公民的移徙模式相符。新移民,其中许多是穷人,缺乏英语知识,居住在城市内的社区。随着城市人口的扩大,富人迁移到郊区,离开条件较差的人。Shaw and McKay concluded that socioeconomic status correlated to race and ethnicity resulted in a higher crime rate. The mix of cultures and values created a smaller society with different ideas of deviance, and those values and ideas were transferred from generation to generation.
::Shaw和McKay得出结论,社会经济地位与种族和族裔相关,导致犯罪率上升。 文化和价值观的混合造成了一个具有不同偏差观念的较小社会,这些价值观和理念代代相传。The theory of Shaw and McKay has been further tested and expounded upon by Robert Sampson and Byron Groves (1989). They found that poverty, ethnic diversity, and family disruption in given localities had a strong positive correlation with social disorganization. They also determined that social disorganization was, in turn, associated with high rates of crime and delinquency—or deviance. Recent studies Sampson conducted with Lydia Bean (2006) revealed similar findings. High rates of poverty and single-parent homes correlated with high rates of juvenile violence.
::Robert Sampson和Byron Groves(1989年)进一步检验和阐述了Shaw和McKay的理论,他们发现,特定地区的贫困、种族多样性和家庭破裂与社会组织不健全有着密切的正相关关系,他们还认定,社会组织混乱反过来又与犯罪率和犯罪率高或失常有关,Sampson最近与Lydia Bean(2006年)进行的研究也揭示了类似的结果,高贫困率和单亲家庭与青少年暴力高发生率相关联。Conflict Perspective
::冲突视角Conflict theory looks to social and economic factors as the causes of crime and deviance. Unlike functionalists, conflict theorists don’t see these factors as positive functions of society, but as evidence of inequality in the system. They also challenge social disorganization theory and control theory, arguing that both ignore racial and socioeconomic issues and oversimplify social trends (Akers 1991). Conflict theorists also look for answers to the correlation of gender and race with wealth and crime.
::冲突理论把社会和经济因素看成犯罪和偏离的原因。 与功能论者不同,冲突理论家并不认为这些因素是社会的积极功能,而是系统不平等的证据。 冲突理论家还质疑社会组织混乱理论和控制理论,认为它们忽视了种族和社会经济问题,过度简化了社会趋势(Akers 1991 ) 。 冲突理论家也寻求解决性别和种族与财富和犯罪之间的关系。Conflict theory is derived greatly from the work of sociologist, philosopher, and revolutionary Karl Marx. Marx divided the general population into two rigid social groups: the proletariat and the bourgeois. The bourgeois are a small and wealthy segment of society who controls the means of production, while the proletariat is composed of the workers who rely on those means of production for employment and survival. By centralizing these vital resources into few hands, the bourgeois also has the means to control the way society is regulated—from laws, to government, to other authority agencies—which gives the bourgeois the opportunity to maintain and expand their power in society. Though Marx spoke little of deviance, his ideas created the foundation for conflict theorists who study the intersection of deviance and crime with wealth and power.
::马克思将一般人口分为两个僵硬的社会群体:无产阶级和资产阶级。资产阶级是社会上一个小而富裕的阶层,控制着生产手段,而无产阶级则由依赖这些生产手段就业并生存的工人组成。通过将这些重要资源集中到少数人手中,资产阶级也有能力控制社会管理方式 — — 从法律到政府,到其他权威机构 — — 这让资产阶级有机会维持和扩大他们在社会上的权力。虽然马克思很少提到偏离,但他的想法为冲突理论家提供了基础,他们研究与财富和权力的邪恶和犯罪交织。In his book The Power Elite (1956), sociologist C. Wright Mills described the existence of what he dubbed the power elite , a small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources. Wealthy executives, politicians, celebrities, and military leaders often have access to national and international power, and in some cases, their decisions affect everyone in society. Because of this, the rules of society are stacked in favor of a privileged few who manipulate them to stay on top. It is these people who decide what is criminal and what is not, and the effects are often felt most by those who have little power. Mills’ theories explain why celebrities such as Chris Brown and Paris Hilton, or once-powerful politicians such as Eliot Spitzer and Tom DeLay, can commit crimes with little or no legal retribution.
::社会学家赖特·米尔斯在他的著作《权力利特(1956年) 》 ( The Power Elite,社会学家赖特·米尔斯(Wright Mills)中描述了他所谓的权力精英的存在。 权力精英是由掌握权力和资源的社会高层的一小撮富有和有影响力的人组成的一小撮人组成。 富豪的行政人员、政治家、名人和军事领导人往往有机会获得国家和国际权力,在某些情况下,他们的决定影响到社会上的每一个人。 因此,社会规则堆积如山,偏向少数特权的少数人操纵他们,让他们保持最高地位。 正是这些人决定什么是犯罪,什么不是犯罪,什么是非犯罪,其影响往往被那些权力微弱的人所感受到。 米尔斯的理论解释了为什么像克里斯·布朗和巴黎·希尔顿这样的名人,或者像艾略特·斯皮策(Eliot Spitzer)和汤姆·德莱(Tom DeLay)这样的曾经强大的政客可以犯罪,而很少或根本没有法律惩罚。
Conflict theorists argue individuals commit deviant acts such as begging for money to challenge those people who have power or to gain economic rewards.
::冲突理论家认为,个人犯下异常行为,如乞讨钱财,以挑战那些有权有势的人或获得经济回报的人。http://www.gailperry.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/begging.png ;
::
Crime and Social Class
::犯罪和社会阶层While crime is often associated with the underprivileged, crimes committed by the wealthy and powerful remain an under-punished and costly problem within society. The FBI reported that victims of burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft lost a total of $15.3 billion dollars in 2009 (FB1 2010). In comparison, when Bernie Madoff was arrested in 2008, the US Securities and Exchange Commission reported that the estimated losses of his financial Ponzi scheme fraud were close to $50 billion (SEC 2009).
::联邦调查局报告说,2009年盗窃、盗窃和机动车辆盗窃的受害者总共损失153亿美元(2010年FB1),而2008年Bernie Madoff被捕时,美国证券交易委员会报告说,他的金融阴谋欺诈估计损失近500亿美元(2009年SEC,2009年)。This imbalance based on class power is also found within US criminal law. In the 1980s, the use of crack cocaine (cocaine in its purest form) quickly became an epidemic sweeping the country’s poorest urban communities. Its pricier counterpart, cocaine, was associated with upscale users and was a drug of choice for the wealthy. The legal implications of being caught by authorities with crack versus cocaine were starkly different. In 1986, federal law mandated that being caught in possession of 50 grams of crack was punishable by a 10-year prison sentence. An equivalent prison sentence for cocaine possession, however, required possession of 5,000 grams. In other words, the sentencing disparity was 1 to 100 (New York Times Editorial Staff 2011). This inequality in the severity of punishment for crack versus cocaine paralleled the unequal social class of respective users. A conflict theorist would note that those in society who hold the power are also the ones who make the laws concerning crime. In doing so, they make laws that will benefit them, while the powerless classes who lack the resources to make such decisions suffer the consequences. The crack-cocaine punishment disparity remained until 2010, when President Obama signed the Fair Sentencing Act, which decreased the disparity to 1 to 18 (The Sentencing Project 2010).
::这种基于阶级权力的不平衡也存在于美国刑法中。在1980年代,快克可卡因(纯可卡因形式)的使用很快成为一场流行病,席卷了该国最贫穷的城市社区。可卡因与大规模使用者有关,是富人的首选药物。被当局以快克和可卡因抓获的法律后果明显不同。1986年,联邦法律规定被抓住拥有50克裂缝者将被判处10年监禁。但是,对拥有可卡因的同等徒刑需要5 000克。换句话说,判刑差距为1至100(《纽约时报》编辑人员,2011年)。对可卡因和可卡因的惩罚程度的这种不平等与不同使用者的不平等程度相仿。冲突论者会指出,掌握权力的人也是制定犯罪法律的人。这样做,他们就会制定有利于他们的法律,而缺乏资源做出此类决定的无能力阶层则会遭受后果。 裂克-可卡因惩罚差距一直持续到2010年,当时奥巴马总统签署了公平判决计划(2010年),将差距缩小到18岁。
From 1986 until 2010, the punishment for possessing crack, a “poor person’s drug,” was 100 times stricter than the punishment for cocaine use, a drug favored by the wealthy. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)
::从1986年到2010年,对拥有快克(一种“穷人的毒品 ” ) 的处罚比对使用可卡因(一种富人偏爱的毒品)的处罚严厉100倍。 (维基媒体公文的Photo礼仪)Interactionist Perspective
::互动观点Interactionist have proposed three explanations of deviance- control theory, cultural transmission theory, and labeling theory. Control theory explains deviance as a natural occurrence.
::互动论者提出了关于偏离控制理论、文化传播理论和标签理论的三种解释。 控制论将偏离解释为自然发生。Continuing with an examination of large social factors, control theory states that social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and that deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society. Individuals who believe they are a part of society are less likely to commit crimes against it.
::控制理论在继续研究大型社会因素后指出,社会控制直接受到社会纽带力量的影响,与社会脱节的感觉会造成社会偏差,认为自己是社会一部分的个人不太可能对社会犯罪。Travis Hirschi (1969) identified four types of social bonds that connect people to society:
::Travis Hirschi(1969年)确定了将人与社会联系起来的四类社会纽带:-
Attachment
measures our connections to others. When we are closely attached to people, we worry about their opinions of us. People conform to society’s norms in order to gain approval (and prevent disapproval) from family, friends, and romantic partners.
::当我们与他人紧密相连时,我们担心他们对我们的看法。 人们遵守社会规范,以便获得家人、朋友和浪漫伴侣的认可(并避免不赞同 ) 。 -
Commitment
refers to the investments we make in the community. A well-respected local businesswoman who volunteers at her synagogue and is a member of the neighborhood block organization has more to lose from committing a crime than a woman who doesn’t have a career or ties to the community.
::承诺指的是我们对社区的投资。 一位受人尊敬的当地女商人在她的犹太教堂当志愿者,并且是街区组织的成员,比一个没有职业或与社区没有联系的妇女更会因为犯罪而损失更多。 -
Similarly, levels of
involvement
, or participation in socially legitimate activities, lessen a person’s likelihood of deviance. Children who are members of little league baseball teams have fewer family crises.
::同样,参与社会合法活动或参与社会合法活动的程度也降低了一个人的偏差可能性。 参加小联盟棒球队的儿童的家庭危机较少。 -
The final bond,
belief
, is an agreement on common values in society. If a person views social values as beliefs, he or she will conform to them. An environmentalist is more likely to pick up trash in a park because a clean environment is a social value to him (Hirschi 1969).
::如果一个人将社会价值观视为信仰,那么他或她会遵守这些价值观。 环保主义者更有可能在公园里捡垃圾,因为清洁的环境对他来说是一种社会价值(Hirschi 1969年)。
Hirschi’s theory has been very popular. Many studies find that youths with weaker bonds to their parents and schools are more likely to be deviant. But the theory has its critics (Akers & Sellers, 2008). Akers, R. L., & Sellers, C. S. (2008). Criminological theories: Introduction, evaluation, and application . New York, NY: Oxford University Press. One problem centers on the chicken-and-egg question of causal order. For example, many studies support social control theory by finding that delinquent youths often have worse relationships with their parents than do nondelinquent youths. Is that because the bad relationships prompt the youths to be delinquent, as Hirschi thought? Or is it because the youths’ delinquency worsens their relationship with their parents? Despite these questions, Hirschi’s social control theory continues to influence our understanding of deviance. To the extent it is correct, it suggests several strategies for preventing crime, including programs designed to improve parenting and relations between parents and children (Welsh & Farrington, 2007). Welsh, B. C., & Farrington, D. P. (Eds.). (2007). Preventing crime: What works for children, offenders, victims and places . New York, NY: Springer.
::Hirschi的理论非常受欢迎。许多研究发现,与其父母和学校关系较弱的青年更有可能出现反常现象。但理论有批评者(Akers & Sellers,2008年,Akers,R.L, & Sellers,C.S.(2008年)。犯罪学理论:介绍、评估和应用。纽约,纽约,牛津大学出版社。一个问题的核心在于因果秩序的鸡和鸡问题。例如,许多研究通过发现违法青年与其父母的关系往往比非恶性青年更坏,来支持社会控制理论。这是因为坏性关系促使青少年犯罪,正如Hirschi所想的那样?还是因为青少年犯罪恶化了他们与父母的关系?尽管存在这些问题,Hirschi的社会控制理论仍然影响我们对偏离的理解。在正确的程度上,它提出了几项预防犯罪战略,包括旨在改善父母亲子关系的方案(Welsh & Farring, 2007年,Welshton, B.Farston, Streams: Strefledge, B. D. Strinders, Striw. D. Striws.
Travis Hirschi’s social control theory stresses the importance of bonds to social institutions for preventing deviance. His theory emphasized the importance of attachment to one’s family in this regard.
::Travis Hirschi的社会控制理论强调与社会机构的联系对于防止偏离行为的重要性。 他的理论强调了在这方面与家人相依的重要性。© Thinkstock
::智商Differential Association Theory
::差别协会One popular set of explanations, often called learning theories , emphasizes that deviance is learned from interacting with other people who believe it is OK to commit deviance and who often commit deviance themselves. Deviance, then, arises from normal socialization processes. The most influential such explanation is Edwin H. Sutherland’s (1947) Sutherland, E. H. (1947). Principles of criminology . Philadelphia, PA: J. P. Lippincott. , which says that criminal behavior is learned by interacting with close friends and family members. These individuals teach us not only how to commit various crimes but also the values, motives, and rationalizations that we need to adopt in order to justify breaking the law. The earlier in our life that we associate with deviant individuals and the more often we do so, the more likely we become deviant ourselves. In this way, a normal social process, socialization, can lead normal people to commit deviance. According to cultural transmission theory, deviance is explained as a learned behavior.
::一种流行的解释,通常称为学习理论,强调偏离行为是从与认为实施偏离行为是正常的其他人互动中学会的,而其他人则认为实施偏离行为是正常的社会化过程。因此,偏离行为源于正常的社会化过程。最有影响力的解释是Edwin H. Sutherland的(1947年)Supherland,E.H.(1947年),犯罪学原则。费城,PA:J.P.Lippincott.,其中说犯罪行为是通过与亲密朋友和家庭成员互动来学习的。这些人不仅教我们如何实施各种犯罪,而且教我们为了为违法辩护而需要采纳的价值、动机和合理化。在我们生活的早期,我们与异常个人联系在一起,而且我们往往这样做,我们更可能变得离谱。从这个角度讲,正常的社会进程、社会化可以引导正常人进行违背行为。根据文化传播理论,偏离行为被解释为学习行为。Sutherland’s theory of differential association was one of the most influential sociological theories ever. Over the years much research has documented the importance of adolescents’ peer relationships for their entrance into the world of drugs and delinquency (Akers & Sellers, 2008). Akers, R. L., & Sellers, C. S. (2008). Criminological theories: Introduction, evaluation, and application . New York, NY: Oxford University Press. However, some critics say that not all deviance results from the influences of deviant peers. Still, differential association theory and the larger category of learning theories it represents remain a valuable approach to understanding deviance and crime.
::萨瑟兰的差别联系理论是有史以来最具影响力的社会学理论之一。 多年来,许多研究记录了青少年同龄人关系对于他们进入毒品和犯罪世界的重要性(Akers & Sellers, 2008, 2008, Akers, R. L., & Sellers, C. S. (2008) 。 犯罪学理论:导言、评估和应用 。 纽约,纽约:牛津大学出版社。 但是,一些批评家说,并非所有的偏差都来自异性同龄人的影响。 尽管如此,差异性联系理论及其所代表的较大类学习理论仍然是理解异常和犯罪的宝贵方法。Labeling Theory
::标签理论If we arrest and imprison someone, we hope they will be “scared straight,” or deterred from committing a crime again. assumes precisely the opposite: it says that labeling someone deviant increases the chances that the labeled person will continue to commit deviance. According to labeling theory, this happens because the labeled person ends up with a deviant self-image that leads to even more deviance. Deviance is the result of being labeled (Bohm & Vogel, 2011). Bohm, R. M., & Vogel, B. (2011). A primer on crime and delinquency theory (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
::如果我们逮捕和监禁某个人,我们希望他们会被“吓得直截了当 ” , 或被阻止再犯罪。 假设恰恰相反:标签有异常的人会增加被贴上标签的人继续犯罪的可能性。 根据标签理论,这种情况之所以发生,是因为标签上的人最后出现了异常的自我形象,导致更大的偏差。 偏离是贴上标签的结果(Bohm & Vogel,2011年)。 Bohm, R. M., & Vogel, B. (2011)。 一本关于犯罪和犯罪理论的入门(第3版 ) 。 Belmont, CA:Wadsworth。This effect is reinforced by how society treats someone who has been labeled. Research shows that job applicants with a criminal record are much less likely than those without a record to be hired (Pager, 2009). Pager, D. (2009). Marked: Race, crime, and finding work in an era of mass incarceration . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Suppose you had a criminal record and had seen the error of your ways but were rejected by several potential employers. Do you think you might be just a little frustrated? If your unemployment continues, might you think about committing a crime again? Meanwhile, you want to meet some law-abiding friends, so you go to a singles bar. You start talking with someone who interests you, and in response to this person’s question, you say you are between jobs. When your companion asks about your last job, you reply that you were in prison for armed robbery. How do you think your companion will react after hearing this? As this scenario suggests, being labeled deviant can make it difficult to avoid a continued life of deviance.
::社会如何对待被贴上标签的人强化了这种效果。 研究表明,有犯罪记录的求职者比没有犯罪记录的人更有可能被雇用(Pager, 2009/Pager, D.(2009))。 标注:种族、犯罪和在大规模监禁时代寻找工作。 芝加哥, IL:芝加哥大学出版社。 假设你有犯罪记录,看到自己的错误,但被几个潜在雇主拒绝。 你认为你只是有点沮丧吗? 如果你失业继续,你会不会考虑再次犯罪? 同时,你想见一些守法的朋友,然后去一个单条酒吧。你开始与对你感兴趣的人交谈,为了回答这个人的问题,你说你是在工作之间。当你的伴侣问起你最后的工作时,你回答说,你因为持械抢劫而坐牢。你觉得你的伴侣会如何在听这个故事后作出反应? 这样的情景表明,被贴上标签的离谱的离谱会很难避免继续的堕落生活。Labeling theory also asks whether some people and behaviors are indeed more likely than others to acquire a deviant label. In particular, it asserts that nonlegal factors such as appearance, race, and social class affect how often official labeling occurs.
::标签理论还质疑某些人和行为是否真的比其他人更有可能获得异常标签。 特别是,它声称外表、种族和社会阶级等非法律因素影响了官方标签的频率。
Labeling theory assumes that someone who is labeled deviant will be more likely to commit deviance as a result. One problem that ex-prisoners face after being released back into society is that potential employers do not want to hire them. This fact makes it more likely that they will commit new offenses.
::标签理论假设,被贴上标签的异常者更有可能因此做出异常行为。 前囚犯在被释放回社会后所面临的一个问题是潜在雇主不愿意雇用他们。 这一事实使得他们更有可能犯下新的罪行。© Thinkstock
::智商William Chambliss’s (1973) Chambliss, W. J. (1973). The saints and the roughnecks. Society, 11, 24–31. classic analysis of the “Saints” and the “Roughnecks” is an excellent example of this argument. The Saints were eight male high-school students from middle-class backgrounds who were very delinquent, while the Roughnecks were six male students in the same high school who were also very delinquent but who came from poor, working-class families. Although the Saints’ behavior was arguably more harmful than the Roughnecks’, their actions were considered harmless pranks, and they were never arrested. After graduating from high school, they went on to college and graduate and professional school and ended up in respectable careers. In contrast, the Roughnecks were widely viewed as troublemakers and often got into trouble for their behavior. As adults they either ended up in low-paying jobs or went to prison.
::威廉·钱布利斯(William Chamblis)的1973 Chambliss, W. J. J. (1973). 圣徒和暴徒。 社会,11, 24-31. 对“圣人”和“Roughnecks”的典型分析是这一论点的一个极好的例子。 圣徒是来自中产阶级的八名男高中生,他们都是极恶行,而粗鲁是同一所高中的6名男学生,他们也非常恶行,但来自贫穷的工人阶级家庭。 虽然圣徒的行为可以说比粗俗家族更有害,但他们的行为却被视为无害的恶作剧,他们从未被逮捕。 高中毕业后,他们上大学、研究生和专业学校,最后进入了受人尊敬的职业。 相反,粗鲁的男女被广泛视为麻烦制造者,他们的行为往往有麻烦。 作为成年人,他们要么最终从事低薪工作,要么进监狱。Labeling theory’s views on the effects of being labeled and on the importance of nonlegal factors for official labeling remain controversial. Nonetheless, the theory has greatly influenced the study of deviance and crime in the last few decades and promises to do so for many years to come.
::标签理论对标签的影响和非法律因素对官方标签的重要性的看法仍然颇具争议。 尽管如此,这一理论在过去几十年中极大地影响了对异常和犯罪的研究,并承诺在未来许多年中这样做。Sociologist Edwin Lemert expanded on the concepts of labeling theory, identifying two types of deviance that affect identity formation. Primary deviance is a violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual’s self-image or interactions with others. Speeding is a deviant act, but receiving a speeding ticket generally does not make others view you as a bad person, nor does it alter your own self-concept. Individuals who engage in primary deviance still maintain a feeling of belonging in society and are likely to continue to conform to norms in the future.
::社会学家埃德温·莱默特扩大了标签理论的概念,确定了影响身份形成的两个偏离类型。 初级偏离是违反规范的行为,不会对个人的自我形象或与他人的互动产生任何长期影响。 加速是一种反常行为,但获得超速罚单通常不会使他人把你看作坏人,也不会改变自己的自我观念。 参与主要偏离的个人仍然有归属于社会的感觉,并有可能在未来继续遵守规范。Sometimes, in more extreme cases, primary deviance can morph into secondary deviance. Secondary deviance occurs when a person’s self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society. The person may begin to take on and fulfill the role of a “deviant” as an act of rebellion against the society that has labeled that individual as such. For example, consider a high school student who often cuts class and gets into fights. The student is reprimanded frequently by teachers and school staff, and soon enough, he develops a reputation as a “troublemaker.” As a result, the student starts acting out even more and breaking more rules; he has adopted the “troublemaker” label and embraced this deviant identity. Secondary deviance can be so strong that it bestows a master status on an individual. A master status is a label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual. Some people see themselves primarily as doctors, artists, or grandfathers. Others see themselves as beggars, convicts, or addicts.
::有时,在更极端的情况下,初级偏离行为会演变为二级偏离。当一个人的自我概念和行为在被社会成员称为异常行为后开始改变时,就会发生二级偏离行为。 一个人可能开始承担并履行“异常”作用,作为反对贴上个人标签的社会的反叛行为。 比如,将一个高中学生视为经常削减班级并进入战斗的中学生。 学生经常受到教师和学校教职员的斥责,而且很快,他就会发展出一个“麻烦制造者”的名声。 结果,学生开始越演越烈,越打破更多的规则;他采用了“麻烦制造者”标签,并接受了这种异常身份。 二级偏离行为可能非常强烈,给个人以主人身份。 硕士身份是一种描述个人主要特征的标签。 一些人认为自己主要是医生、艺术家或祖父。 其他人认为自己是乞丐、罪犯或瘾君子。Key Takeaways
::密钥外出-
Deviance is behavior that violates social norms and arouses negative social reactions.
::偏离是违反社会规范和引起负面社会反应的行为。 -
Crime is behavior that is considered so serious that it violates formal laws prohibiting such behavior.
::犯罪是被认为非常严重的行为,它违反了禁止这种行为的正式法律。 -
Social control refers to ways in which a society tries to prevent and sanction behavior that violates norms.
::社会控制是指社会如何努力防止和制裁违反规范的行为。 -
Émile Durkheim believed that deviance is a normal part of every society.
::埃米尔·杜尔克海姆认为,偏离是每个社会的一个正常部分。 -
Whether a behavior is considered deviant depends on the circumstances under which it occurs. Considerations of certain behaviors as deviant also vary from one society to another and from one era to another within a given society.
::某种行为是否被视为异常取决于其发生时的环境。 某些行为被视为异常的考虑也因社会的不同而异,也因社会的不同而异,也因时代的不同而异。 -
Both biological and psychological explanations assume that deviance stems from problems arising inside the individual.
::生理和心理解释都假定,偏差源于个人内部产生的问题。 -
Sociological explanations attribute deviance to various aspects of the social environment.
::社会学的解释将偏差归咎于社会环境的各个方面。 -
Several functionalist explanations exist. Durkheim highlighted the functions that deviance serves for society. Merton’s strain theory assumed that deviance among the poor results from their inability to achieve the economic success so valued in American society. Other explanations highlight the role played by the social and physical characteristics of urban neighborhoods, of deviant subcultures, and of weak bonds to social institutions.
::有几种功能主义的解释存在。 杜尔克海姆强调了偏离社会功能的作用。 默顿的紧张理论认为穷人的偏差是他们无法实现美国社会如此珍视的经济成功的结果。 其他解释强调了城市邻居的社会和物理特征、异常亚文化以及社会机构薄弱的纽带所扮演的角色。 -
Conflict explanations assume that the wealthy and powerful use the legal system to protect their own interests and to keep the poor and racial minorities subservient. Feminist perspectives highlight the importance of gender inequality for crimes against women and of male socialization for the gender difference in criminality.
::女权主义观点强调了性别不平等对妇女犯罪的重要性,以及男性社会化对犯罪中的性别差异的重要性。 -
Interactionist explanations highlight the importance of social interaction in the commitment of deviance and in reactions to deviance. Labeling theory assumes that the labeling process helps ensure that someone will continue to commit deviance, and it also assumes that some people are more likely than others to be labeled deviant because of their appearance, race, social class, and other characteristics.
::互动解释凸显了社会互动在异端承诺和对异端反应中的重要性。 标签理论假设标签程序有助于确保某人继续做出异端行为,还假设有些人因其外观、种族、社会阶级和其他特征而比其他人更有可能被贴上异常标签。
For Your Review
::供您审阅-
In what ways is deviance considered relative?
::以什么方式认为偏差是相对的? -
Why did Durkheim consider deviance a normal part of society?
::为什么杜尔凯姆认为偏离社会正常部分是社会正常部分? -
In what important way do biological and psychological explanations differ from sociological explanations?
::生物和心理解释与社会学解释有什么不同? -
What are any two functions of deviance according to Durkheim?
::Durkheim说,有什么两种偏离功能? -
What are any two criminogenic social or physical characteristics of urban neighborhoods?
::城市街区的两种犯罪社会或生理特征是什么? -
What are any two assumptions of feminist perspectives on deviance and crime?
::在女权主义观点中,对异常和犯罪有什么两种假设? -
According to labeling theory, what happens when someone is labeled as a deviant?
::根据标签理论,当某人被贴上异常标签时会怎样?
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Define deviance, crime, and social control.
