章节大纲

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  • 美洲级体系

    Objectives
    ::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标

    Analyze the different characteristics of the American social classes.
    ::分析美国社会阶层的不同特点。

    Evaluate the different methods sociologists use to determine social class.
    ::评估社会学家用来确定社会阶层的不同方法。

    Describe the types of social mobility in the United States.
    ::说明在美国的社会流动类型。


    Universal Generalizations
    ::普遍化

    Social inequality exists in all societies.
    ::所有社会都存在社会不平等。

    In the United States there are different social classes.
    ::在美国,社会阶层不同。

    One significant difference between social classes is income.
    ::社会阶层之间的一个显著差别是收入。

    In an open class system, such as the United States social mobility is possible.
    ::在开放阶级制度中,例如美国的社会流动性是可能的。


    Guided Questions
    ::问 问 题

    How are social classes determined?
    ::如何确定社会阶层?

    Distinguish the major characteristics of the six social classes in America.
    ::区分美国六个社会阶层的主要特点。

    How are the “old money” and “new money” different?
    ::" 旧钱 " 和 " 新钱 " 有何不同?

    Why are working poor so limited in their opportunities?
    ::为什么在业穷人的机会如此有限?

    Explain vertical mobility.
    ::解释纵向流动。

    Explain horizontal mobility.
    ::解释横向流动。

    The American Class System
    ::美洲级体系

    Learning Objectives
    ::学习目标

    1. Distinguish objective and subjective measures of social class.
      ::区分社会阶层的客观和主观衡量标准。
    2. Outline the functionalist view of the American class structure.
      ::概述美国阶级结构的功能论观点。
    3. Outline the conflict view of the American class structure.
      ::概述美国阶级结构的冲突观点。
    4. Discuss whether the United States has much vertical social mobility.
      ::讨论美国是否有许多纵向社会流动性。

    Social inequality exists in all class systems and societies.  The degree of inequality varies from one society to another.  The United States has a relatively open system.  Americans have in theory opportunities to access the resources needed to attain social mobility or advancements.  Still, in the U.S. there exists a number of different social classes, and the rate of social mobility is not the same for all Americans.    
    ::社会不平等存在于所有阶级体系和社会中,社会不平等的程度因社会而异。 美国是一个相对开放的体系。 美国人在理论上有机会获得实现社会流动性或进步所需的资源。 但是,在美国还是存在一些不同的社会阶层,社会流动性率并不是所有美国人都一样。

    Measuring Social Class
    ::衡量社会等级

    We can measure social class either objectively or subjectively . If we choose the objective method, we classify people according to one or more criteria, such as their occupation, education, and/or income. The researcher is the one who decides which social class people are in based on where they stand in regard to these variables. If we choose the subjective method, we ask people what class they think they are in. For example, the General Social Survey asks, “If you were asked to use one of four names for your social class, which would you say you belong in: the lower class, the working class, the middle class, or the upper class?” depicts responses to this question. The trouble with such a subjective measure is that some people say they are in a social class that differs from what objective criteria might indicate they are in. This problem leads most sociologists to favor objective measures of social class when they study stratification in American society.
    ::我们可以客观或主观地衡量社会阶层。如果我们选择客观的方法,我们就会按照一种或多种标准,如职业、教育和/或收入,对人进行分类。研究者是决定哪些社会阶层的人在这些变量方面所处的地位的人。如果我们选择主观的方法,我们就会问人们他们认为他们属于哪个阶层。例如,社会总调查要求“如果要求你为你的社会阶层使用四个名字中的一个名字,你会说你属于这个阶层:低阶层、工人阶级、中产阶级或上层阶级?” 描述对这个问题的回答。这种主观衡量的麻烦在于有些人说,他们所处的社会阶层与客观标准可能显示的他们所处的地位不同。 这个问题导致大多数社会学家在研究美国社会阶层时倾向于客观的社会阶层措施。

    Figure 9.2 Subjective Social Class Membership
    ::图9.2 主观社会阶层成员

    Source: Data from General Social Survey, 2008.
    ::资料来源:2008年社会普查数据。

    Yet even here there is disagreement between functionalist theorists and conflict theorists on which objective measures to use. Functionalist sociologists rely on measures of , such as education, income, and occupation, to determine someone’s social class. Sometimes one of these three variables is used by itself to measure social class, and sometimes two or all three of the variables are combined (in ways that need not concern us) to measure social class. When occupation is used, sociologists often rely on standard measures of occupational prestige. Since the late 1940s, national surveys have asked Americans to rate the prestige of dozens of occupations, and their ratings are averaged together to yield prestige scores for the occupations (Hodge, Siegel, & Rossi, 1964). Hodge, R. W., Siegel, P., & Rossi, P. (1964). Occupational prestige in the United States, 1925–63. American Journal of Sociology, 70 , 286–302. Over the years these scores have been relatively stable. Here are some average prestige scores for various occupations: physician, 86; college professor, 74; elementary school teacher, 64; letter carrier, 47; garbage collector, 28; and janitor, 22.
    ::即使在这里,功能论理论家和冲突论者之间也存在分歧,而正是这些理论家和冲突论者之间在客观措施上存在分歧。 功能论社会学家依靠教育、收入和职业等衡量标准来决定某人的社会阶级。 有时,这三个变量中有一个是自己用来衡量社会阶级的,有时,其中两个或所有三个变量是(以不需要我们关心的方式)用来衡量社会阶级的。 当使用占领时,社会学家往往依赖职业威望的标准衡量标准。 自1940年代末以来,国家调查要求美国人对数十种职业的声望进行评分,而他们的评分是平均的,以取得职业的声望评分(Hodge,Siegel, & Rossi,1964年)。Hodge, R.W., Siegel, P., & Rossi, P. (1964年)。美国的职业声望,1925-63. 美国社会学杂志,70, 286-302年,这些评分一直相对稳定。 这些是各种职业的平均声评分:医生,86;大学教授,74;小学教师,信箱,47;垃圾,以及清洁商,47。

    Despite SES’s usefulness, conflict sociologists prefer different, though still objective, measures of social class that take into account ownership of the means of production and other dynamics of the workplace. These measures are closer to what Marx meant by the concept of class throughout his work, and they take into account the many types of occupations and workplace structures that he could not have envisioned when he was writing during the 19th century.
    ::尽管SES的有用性,但冲突社会学家还是倾向于采取不同的、尽管仍然是客观的、考虑到生产手段所有权和工作场所其他动态的社会阶层措施。 这些措施更接近于马克思在其整个工作中对阶级概念的含意,并且考虑到他在19世纪写作时无法想象到的多种职业和工作场所结构。

    For example, corporations have many upper-level managers who do not own the means of production but still determine the activities of workers under them. They thus do not fit neatly into either of Marx’s two major classes, the bourgeoisie or the proletariat. Recognizing these problems, conflict sociologists delineate social class on the basis of several factors, including the ownership of the means of production, the degree of autonomy workers enjoy in their jobs, and whether they supervise other workers or are supervised themselves (Wright, 2000). Wright, E. O. (2000). Class counts: Comparative studies in class analysis . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
    ::例如,公司有许多高级经理,他们并不拥有生产资料,但仍在决定工人的活动,因此,他们并不完全适合马克思的两大类,即资产阶级或无产阶级。 认识到这些问题,冲突社会学家根据若干因素划分社会阶层,包括生产资料的所有权、工人在工作上享有的自治程度,以及他们是否监督其他工人或受到监督(Wright,2000年)。 (Wright,Wright,E.O.(2000))。 类数:课堂分析比较研究。纽约:剑桥大学出版社。

    The American Class Structure
    ::美国等级结构

    As should be evident, it is not easy to determine how many social classes exist in the United States. Over the decades, sociologists have outlined as many as six or seven social classes based on such things as, once again, education, occupation, and income, but also on lifestyle, the schools people’s children attend, a family’s reputation in the community, how “old” or “new” people’s wealth is, and so forth (Coleman & Rainwater, 1978; Warner & Lunt, 1941). Coleman, R. P., & Rainwater, L. (1978). Social standing in America . New York, NY: Basic Books; Warner, W. L., & Lunt, P. S. (1941). The social life of a modern community . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
    ::显而易见,要确定美国有多少社会阶层并不容易。 几十年来,社会学家们根据教育、职业和收入等情况,以及生活方式、学校学生们参加、家庭在社区的声誉、 " 年老 " 或 " 新的 " 人民财富如何,等等(Coleman & Rainwater,1978年;Warner & Lunt,1941.Coleman,R.P., & Rainwater,L.(1978年),《美国社会地位》,纽约:基本书籍;Warner, W.L., & Lunt, P.S.(1949年)。 现代社区的社会生活。 纽黑文:耶鲁大学出版社。

    The four social classes included in : the upper class, the middle class, the working class, and the lower class will be examined. Subcategories exist within some of these broad categories: upper class, upper middle class, lower middle class, working class, working poor and lower class they still capture the most important differences in the American class structure (Gilbert, 2011). Gilbert, D. (2011). The American class structure in an age of growing inequality (8th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. The annual income categories listed for each class are admittedly somewhat arbitrary but are based on the percentage of households above or below a specific income level.
    ::包括四个社会阶层:上层阶级、中产阶级、工人阶级和下层阶级将接受检查;在这些大类中的某些类别中存在子类:上层阶级、中上阶级、中下阶级、工人阶级、贫困劳动者和下层阶级,他们仍然占据着美国阶级结构中最重要的差异(Gilbert, 2011年)。Gilbert, D.(2011年)。在日益不平等的时代,美国阶级结构(第8版)。千橡树,CA:Pine Forge Press。每个阶层列出的年收入类别被承认有些武断,但以高于或低于特定收入水平的家庭的百分比为基础。

    The Upper Class
    ::上一级

    Depending on how it is defined, the upper class consists of about 4% of the U.S. population and includes households with annual incomes (2009 data) of more than $200,000 (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, & Smith, 2010). DeNavas-Walt, C., Proctor, B. D., & Smith, J. C. (2010). Income, poverty, and health insurance coverage in the United States: 2009 (Current Population Report P60-238). Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.
    ::根据如何界定,上层阶级约占美国人口的4%,包括年收入超过200 000美元(DeNavas-Walt,Proctor, & Smith, 2010年)的家庭(2009年数据)。 DeNavas-Walt, C.,Proctor, B.D. & Smith, J. C. (2010年)。 2009年,美国的收入、贫穷和医疗保险覆盖率(当前人口报告P60-238),华盛顿特区:美国人口普查局。

    Some scholars would raise the ante further by limiting the upper class to households with incomes of at least $500,000 or so, which in turn reduces this class to about 1% of the population, with an average wealth (income, stocks and bonds, and real estate) of several million dollars. However it is defined, the upper class has much wealth, power, and influence (Kerbo, 2009). Kerbo, H. R. (2009). Social stratification and inequality . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.  
    ::一些学者会通过将上层阶级限制在收入至少为50万美元左右的家庭,进而将上层阶级降低至占人口约1%,平均财富(收入、股票和债券以及房地产)为数百万美元,从而进一步提升前瞻。 不论如何定义,上层阶级拥有大量财富、权力和影响(Kerbo,2009年);Kerbo,H.R.(2009年);社会分层和不平等。 纽约:McGraw-Hill。

    Members of the upper-upper class have “old” money that has been in their families for generations; some boast of their ancestors coming over on the Mayflower . They belong to exclusive clubs and live in exclusive neighborhoods; have their names in the Social Register ; send their children to expensive private schools; serve on the boards of museums, corporations, and major charities; and exert much influence on the political process and other areas of life from behind the scenes. Members of the lower-upper class have “new” money acquired through hard work, lucky investments, and/or athletic prowess. In many ways their lives are similar to those of their old-money counterparts, but they do not enjoy the prestige that old money brings. Bill Gates, the founder of Microsoft and the richest person in the United States in 2009, would be considered a member of the lower-upper class because his money is too “new.” Because he does not have a long-standing pedigree, upper-upper class members might even be tempted to disparage his immense wealth, at least in private.
    ::上上层阶级成员拥有“老”钱,他们家族里已有几代人;一些自夸的祖先在五月花上出现,他们属于独家俱乐部,住在独家社区;他们的名字在社会登记册中注册;把他们的孩子送到昂贵的私立学校;在博物馆、公司和大型慈善机构的董事会任职;从幕后对政治进程和其他生活领域施加很大影响;下层阶级成员有通过艰苦工作、幸运投资和(或)体育先锋获得的“新”钱。 在许多方面,他们的生活与旧款同行的生活相似,但他们并不享受旧款带来的声望。 2009年微软的创始人和美国最富有的人比尔·盖茨(Bill Gates)将被视为下层阶级成员,因为他的钱“太新 ” 。 因为他没有长期的智者,上层阶级成员甚至可能想贬低他巨大的财富,至少是私人财富。



    The upper class is considered America’s top, and only the powerful elite get to see the view from there. In the United States, people with extreme wealth make up one percent of the population, and they own one-third of the country’s wealth (Beeghley 2008).
    ::上层阶级被认为是美国的最高阶层,只有有权势的精英才能从那里看到观点。 在美国,拥有极端财富的人占人口的1%,他们拥有美国财富的三分之一(Beeghley,2008年)。

    Money provides not just access to material goods, but also access to power. America’s upper class wields a lot of power. As corporate leaders, their decisions affect the job status of millions of people. As media owners, they shape the collective identity of the nation. They run the major network television stations, radio broadcasts, newspapers, magazines, publishing houses, and sports franchises. As board members of the most influential colleges and universities, they shape cultural attitudes and values. As philanthropists, they establish foundations to support social causes they believe in. As campaign contributors, they influence politicians and fund campaigns, sometimes to protect their own economic interests.
    ::金钱不仅提供物质商品,也提供获得权力的机会。 美国的上层阶级掌握着许多权力。 作为公司领导人,他们的决定影响着数百万人的工作地位。 作为媒体所有者,他们塑造着国家的集体身份。 他们经营着大型网络电视台、电台广播、报纸、杂志、出版社和体育专营。 作为最有影响力的学院和大学的董事会成员,他们塑造着文化态度和价值观。 作为慈善家,他们建立了支持他们所信仰的社会事业的基础。 作为竞选贡献者,他们影响着政客和资金运动,有时是为了保护自己的经济利益。

    American society has historically distinguished between “old money” (inherited wealth passed from one generation to the next) and “new money” (wealth you have earned and built yourself). While both types may have equal net worth, they have traditionally held different social standing. People of old money, firmly situated in the upper class for generations, have held high prestige. Their families have socialized them to know the customs, norms, and expectations that come with wealth. Often, the very wealthy don’t work for wages. Some study business or become lawyers in order to manage the family fortune. Others, such as Paris Hilton, capitalize on being a rich socialite and transform that into celebrity status, flaunting a wealthy lifestyle.
    ::美国社会历来区分“老钱 ” ( 遗产财富从一代传到下一代)和“新钱 ” ( 财富从一代传到下一代 ) 和“新钱 ” ( 你已经挣得并自建了财富 ) 。 虽然这两种类型的财富都具有同等的净值,但传统上他们拥有不同的社会地位。 老钱的人,世世代代都处于高阶层,拥有很高的声望。 他们的家庭让他们了解财富带来的习俗、规范和期望,使他们社会化。 富人往往不为工资而工作。 有些研究企业或成为律师,以管理家庭财富。 其他人,如巴黎·希尔顿(Paris Hilton ) , 利用成为富人的社会名,将它转变为名人身份,炫耀富人生活方式。

    A luxurious house and grounds.

    Members of the upper class can afford to live, work, and play in exclusive places designed for luxury and comfort. (Photo courtesy of PrimeImageMedia.com/flickr)
    ::上层阶级成员可以在专为奢侈和舒适而设计的地方生活、工作和玩耍。 (Photo是PrimeImage Media.com/flickr的礼节)


    The Middle Class
    ::中产阶级

    Many of us like to think of ourselves in the middle class, as showed, and many of us are. The middle class includes the 46% of all households whose annual incomes range from $50,000 to $199,999. As this very broad range suggests, the middle class includes people with many different levels of education and income and many different types of jobs. It is thus helpful to distinguish the upper-middle class from the lower-middle class on the upper and lower ends of this income bracket, respectively. The upper-middle class has household incomes from about $150,000 to $199,000, amounting to about 4.4% of all households. People in the upper-middle class typically have college and, very often, graduate or professional degrees; live in the suburbs or in fairly expensive urban areas; and are bankers, lawyers, engineers, corporate managers, and financial advisers, among other occupations.
    ::我们中许多人喜欢在中产阶级中思考我们自己,正如所显示的那样,我们中有许多人是。中产阶级包括所有家庭46%的家庭,其年收入从50 000美元到199 999美元不等。正如这一非常广泛的范围所显示的那样,中产阶级包括具有不同程度教育和收入的人以及许多不同种类的工作。因此,区分中上阶级与中下阶级分别是有益的。中上阶级的家庭收入从大约15万到199 000美元,占所有家庭的4.4%左右。中产阶级的人通常有大学,通常有研究生或专业学位;居住在郊区或相当昂贵的城市地区;以及银行家、律师、工程师、公司经理和金融顾问等职业。

    The upper-middle class in the United States consists of about 4.4% of all households, with incomes ranging from $150,000 to $199,000.
    ::美国的中上阶级约占所有家庭的4.4%,收入从150 000美元到199 000美元不等。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商

    Comfort is a key concept to the middle class. Middle-class people work hard and live fairly comfortable lives. Upper-middle-class people tend to pursue careers that earn comfortable incomes. They provide their families with large homes and nice cars. They may go skiing or boating on vacation. Their children receive quality education and health care (Gilbert 2010).
    ::中产阶级的舒适是中产阶级的一个关键概念。 中产阶级的人努力工作,过着相当舒适的生活。 中上阶级的人倾向于从事赚取舒适收入的职业。 他们为家庭提供大房子和好车。 他们可以去滑雪或乘船度假。 他们的孩子可以接受高质量的教育和保健(Gilbert 2010)。

    The lower-middle class has household incomes from about $50,000 to $74,999, amounting to about 18% of all families. People in this income bracket typically work in white-collar jobs as nurses, teachers, and the like. Many have college degrees, usually from the less prestigious colleges, but many also have 2-year degrees or only a high school degree. They live somewhat comfortable lives but can hardly afford to go on expensive vacations or buy expensive cars and can send their children to expensive colleges only if they receive significant financial aid.
    ::低中产阶级的家庭收入在50 000美元到74 999美元之间,占所有家庭的18%左右;这一收入阶层的人通常从事白领工作,从事护士、教师等工作;许多人有大学学位,通常来自不太有声望的学院,但许多人也有2年制学位或只有高中学位;他们过着舒适的生活,但几乎负担不起昂贵的假期或购买昂贵的汽车,只有在他们得到大量财政援助的情况下,才能把他们的孩子送到昂贵的学院。

    In the lower middle class, people hold jobs supervised by members of the upper middle class. They fill technical, lower-level management, or administrative support positions. Compared to lower-class work, lower-middle-class jobs carry more prestige and come with slightly higher paychecks. With these incomes, people can afford a decent, mainstream lifestyle, but they struggle to maintain it. They generally don’t have enough income to build significant savings. In addition, their grip on class status is more precarious than in the upper tiers of the class system. When budgets are tight, lower-middle-class people are often the ones to lose their jobs.
    ::在中下层阶级,人们拥有由中上层阶级成员监管的工作。他们担任技术、低层管理或行政支助职位。 与低层阶级工作相比,中下层阶级工作更受人瞩目,薪酬也略高。 有了这些收入,人们可以买得起体面的、主流的生活方式,但他们很难维持这种生活方式。 他们一般没有足够的收入来积累大量储蓄。 此外,他们对阶级地位的控制比阶级制度的高层更不稳定。 当预算紧张时,中下层阶级往往会失去工作。


    The Working Class
    ::工 类

    Working-class households have annual incomes between about $25,000 and $49,999 and constitute about 25% of all U.S. households. They generally work in blue-collar jobs such as factory work, construction, restaurant serving, and less skilled clerical positions. People in the working class typically do not have 4-year college degrees, and some do not have high school degrees. Although most are not living in official poverty, their financial situation is very uncomfortable. A single large medical bill or expensive car repair would be almost impossible to pay without going into considerable debt. Working-class families are far less likely than their wealthier counterparts to own their own homes or to send their children to college. Many of them live at risk for unemployment as their companies downsize by laying off workers even in good times, and hundreds of thousands began to be laid off when the U.S. recession began in 2008.

    The working class in the United States consists of about 25% of all households, whose members work in blue-collar jobs and less skilled clerical positions.
    ::美国的工人阶级约占所有家庭的25%,其成员从事蓝领工作和技能较差的办事员职位。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商

     

    The lower class is also referred to as the working class. Just like the middle and upper classes, the lower class can be divided into subsets: the working class, the working poor, and the underclass. Compared to the lower middle class, lower-class people have less of an educational background and earn smaller incomes. They work jobs that require little prior skill or experience, often doing routine tasks under close supervision.
    ::下层阶级也被称为劳动阶级,就像中上阶级一样,下层阶级可以分为子类:劳动阶级、贫困劳动者和下层阶级。 与中下阶级相比,下层阶级的人教育背景较少,收入也较少。 他们的工作不需要什么前科或经验,经常在严密的监督下执行日常任务。

    Working-class people, the highest subcategory of the lower class, often land decent jobs in fields like custodial or food service. The work is hands-on and often physically demanding, such as landscaping, cooking, cleaning, or building.
    ::工薪阶层的人,低等阶层中最高的亚类,往往在监管或食品服务等领域拥有体面的工作,工作是亲手完成的,而且往往体力要求很高,例如美化景观、烹饪、清洁或建筑。

    The poor have household incomes under $25,000 and constitute about 25% of all U.S. households. Many of the poor lack high school degrees, and many are unemployed or employed only part time in semiskilled or unskilled jobs. When they do work, they work as janitors, house cleaners, migrant laborers, and shoe shiners. They tend to rent apartments rather than own their own homes, lack medical insurance, and have inadequate diets. We will discuss the poor further when we focus later in this chapter on inequality and poverty in the United States.
    ::穷人的家庭收入不到25 000美元,占美国所有家庭的25%左右。许多穷人没有高中学位,许多人失业或只从事半熟练或非熟练工作。当他们工作时,他们从事清洁工、清洁工、移徙工人和擦鞋工等工作。他们往往租房,而不是拥有自己的住房,没有医疗保险,饮食不足。当我们在本章稍后讨论美国的不平等和贫困问题时,我们将进一步讨论穷人。

    Beneath the working class is the working poor. Like the working class, they have unskilled, low-paying employment. However, their jobs rarely offer benefits such as healthcare or retirement planning, and their positions are often seasonal or temporary. They work as sharecroppers, migrant farm workers, housecleaners, and day laborers. Some are high school dropouts. Some are illiterate, unable to read job ads. Many do not vote because they do not believe that any politician will help change their situation (Beeghley 2008).
    ::工作阶层下层的工人是贫困劳动者,与工作阶层一样,他们有非技术的低薪工作,然而,他们的工作很少提供医疗保健或退休计划等福利,他们的职位往往是季节性的或临时的,他们作为共享者、移徙农业工人、清洁工和日工工作,有些是高中辍学者,有些是文盲,无法阅读招聘广告,许多人不投票,因为他们不相信任何政治家会帮助改变他们的处境(Beeghley,2008年)。

    How can people work full time and still be poor? Even working full time, millions of the working poor earn incomes too meager to support a family. Minimum wage varies from state to state, but in many states it is $7.25 (Department of Labor 2011). At that rate, working 40 hours a week earns $290. That comes to $15,080 a year, before tax and deductions. Even for a single person, the pay is low. A married couple with children will have a hard time covering expenses.
    ::人们如何全职工作,仍然贫穷?即使全职工作,成百万工作穷人的收入也过于微薄,无法养家糊口。 最低工资因州而异,但在许多州为7.25美元(2011年劳工部),按这一比率,每周工作40小时可赚取290美元。 也就是说,在税收和扣除税前,每年工作15 080美元。 即使是单身者,工资也很低。 有子女的已婚夫妇将很难支付费用。

    The underclass is America’s lowest tier. Members of the underclass live mainly in inner cities. Many are unemployed or underemployed. Those who do hold jobs typically perform menial tasks for little pay. Some of the underclass are homeless. For many, welfare systems provide a much-needed support through food assistance, medical care, housing, and the like.
    ::下层阶级是美国最低层。 下层阶级成员主要居住在内地城市。 许多人失业或就业不足。 从事下层阶级工作的人通常从事低工资的下层工作。 有些下层阶级无家可归。 对许多人来说,福利制度通过食品援助、医疗、住房等提供急需的支持。


    The lower class or poor in the United States constitute about 25% of all households. Many poor individuals lack high school degrees and are unemployed or employed only part time.
    ::美国的下层阶级或穷人约占所有家庭的25%,许多穷人没有高中学位,失业或只从事兼职工作。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商



    Social Mobility
    ::社会流动性

    Regardless of how we measure and define social class, what are our chances of moving up or down within the American class structure? The degree of vertical social mobility is a key distinguishing feature of systems of stratification. Class systems such as in the United States are thought to be open, meaning that social mobility is relatively high. It is important, then, to determine how much social mobility exists in the United States.
    ::无论我们如何衡量和界定社会阶级,我们在美国阶级结构内上下移动的可能性有多大?纵向社会流动性的程度是分层体系的主要特征。 美国等阶级体系被认为是开放的,这意味着社会流动性相对较高。 因此,必须确定美国社会流动性的程度。

    Here we need to distinguish between two types of vertical social mobility. refers to mobility from one generation to the next within the same family. If children from poor parents end up in high-paying jobs, the children have experienced upward intergenerational mobility. Conversely, if children of college professors end up hauling trash for a living, these children have experienced downward intergenerational mobility. refers to mobility within a person’s own lifetime. If you start out as an administrative assistant in a large corporation and end up as an upper-level manager, you have experienced upward intragenerational mobility. But if you start out from business school as an upper-level manager and get laid off 10 years later because of corporate downsizing, you have experienced downward intragenerational mobility.
    ::在这里,我们需要区分两种纵向社会流动性。 指的是同一家庭内一代到下一代的流动性。 如果贫穷父母的子女最终从事高薪工作,那么子女就经历了代际间流动性的上升。 相反,如果大学教授的子女最终为谋生而搬运垃圾,这些儿童经历了代际间流动性的下降。 指的是一个人一生中的流动性。 如果你在大型公司中开始担任行政助理,最终成为高层经理,你经历了代际间流动性的上升。 但如果你从商学院开始担任高级经理,并在10年后由于公司裁员而被解雇,你经历了代际间流动性的下降。

    A key vehicle for upward mobility is formal education. Regardless of the socioeconomic status of our parents, we are much more likely to end up in a high-paying job if we attain a college degree or, increasingly, a graduate or professional degree. vividly shows the difference that education makes for Americans’ median annual incomes. Notice, however, that for a given level of education, men’s incomes are greater than women’s. thus suggests that the payoff of education is higher for men than for women, and many studies support this conclusion (Green & Ferber, 2008). Green, C. A., & Ferber, M. A. (2008).  To the extent vertical social mobility exists in the United States, then, it is higher for men than for women and higher for whites than for people of color.
    ::正规教育是向上流动的关键手段。 不论我们父母的社会经济地位如何,如果我们获得大学学位或越来越多的研究生或专业学位,我们更有可能最终从事高薪工作。 生动地显示教育给美国年均收入带来的差异。 然而,在特定教育水平上,男性的收入高于女性。 因此,这表明男性的教育报酬高于女性,许多研究都支持这一结论(Green & Ferber,2008年,Green,C.A.,和Ferber,M.A.(2008年 ) 。 从美国存在的纵向社会流动性来看,男性高于女性,白人高于有色人种。


    Figure 9.3 Education and Median Earnings of Year-Round, Full-Time Workers, 2007
    ::图9.3 2007年全时年薪工人的教育和中位收入

    Source: Data from U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2010. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office . Retrieved from . 
    ::资料来源:美国人口普查局数据(2010年),《美国统计摘要:2010年》,华盛顿特区:美国政府印刷局。



    A college education is a key step toward achieving upward social mobility. However, the payoff of education is often higher for men than for women and for whites than for people of color.
    ::大学教育是实现社会向上流动的关键一步,但是,男子的教育报酬往往高于妇女,白人比有色人种高。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商


    One way of understanding the issue of U.S. mobility is to see how much parents’ education affects the education their children attain. compares how General Social Survey respondents with parents of different educational backgrounds fare in attaining a college (bachelor’s) degree. For the sake of clarity, the figure includes only those respondents whose parents had the same level of education as each other: they either both dropped out of high school, both were high school graduates, or both were college graduates.
    ::理解美国流动性问题的一种方式是了解父母的教育对其子女所受教育的影响程度。 比较一般社会调查的受访者与具有不同教育背景的父母在获得大学(学士)学位方面待遇如何。 为明确起见,该数字只包括父母具有相同教育水平的受访者:他们要么高中辍学,要么高中毕业生,要么都是大学毕业生。


    Figure 9.4 Parents’ Education and Percentage of Respondents Who Have a College Degree
    ::图9.4 父母教育和获得大学学位的答卷人百分比

    Source: Data from General Social Survey, 2008. 
    ::资料来源:2008年社会普查数据。


    As indicates, we are much more likely to get a college degree if our parents had college degrees themselves. The two bars for respondents whose parents were high school graduates or dropouts, respectively, do represent upward mobility, because the respondents are graduating from college even though their parents did not. But the three bars taken together also show that our chances of going to college depend heavily on our parents’ education (and presumably their income and other aspects of our family backgrounds). The American Dream does exist, but it is much more likely to remain only a dream unless we come from advantaged backgrounds.
    ::如前所述,如果我们的父母拥有大学学位,我们更有可能获得大学学位。 父母是高中毕业生或辍学学生的受访者,其两个学栏分别代表了升迁,因为被访者正在从大学毕业,尽管他们的父母没有毕业。 但三个学栏加在一起也表明,我们上大学的机会在很大程度上取决于我们父母的教育(大概是他们的收入和家庭背景的其他方面 ) 。 美国梦确实存在,但除非我们来自优势背景,否则它更有可能只是梦想。

    In fact, there is less vertical mobility in the United States than in other Western democracies. As a recent analysis summarized the evidence, “There is considerably more mobility in most of the other developed economies of Europe and Scandinavia than in the United States” (Mishel, Bernstein, & Shierholz, 2009, p. 108). Mishel, L., Bernstein, J., & Shierholz, H. (2009). The state of working America 2008/2009 . Ithaca, NY: ILR Press [An imprint of Cornell University Press].

    ::事实上,美国的纵向流动性比其他西方民主国家要低,最近的分析总结了证据:“欧洲和斯堪的纳维亚大多数其他发达经济体的流动性比美国大得多”(Mishel, Bernstein, & Shierholz, 2009年,第108页)。Mishel, L., Bernstein, J., & Shierholz, H.(2009年)。美国工作州2008/2009年。Ithaca, NY:ILR Press[Cornell大学出版社的印记]。


    Key Takeaways
    ::密钥外出

    • Several ways of measuring social class exist. Functionalist and conflict sociologists disagree on which objective criteria to use in measuring social class. Subjective measures of social class, which rely on people rating their own social class, may lack some validity.
      ::衡量社会阶级有几种方法存在。 功能主义者和冲突社会学家在衡量社会阶级时使用什么客观标准的问题上意见不一。 依赖人们自己社会阶级评级的社会阶级的主观社会阶级衡量标准可能缺乏一定的有效性。
    • Sociologists disagree on the number of social classes in the United States, but a common view is that the United States has four classes: upper, middle, working, and lower. Further variations exist within the upper and middle classes
      ::社会学家对美国社会阶层的数量意见不一,但一个共同的观点是,美国有四个阶层:上、中、中、工作和较低。
    • The United States has some vertical social mobility, but not as much as several nations in Western Europe.
      ::美国有一些纵向社会流动,但与西欧几个国家相比,没有几个国家。




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