10.3 美国的少数群体
章节大纲
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Objectives
::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标Describe the conditions which minority groups face and live in the United States.
::说明少数群体在美国面临和生活的条件。Explain how government policies have affected the lives of minority groups in the United States.
::解释政府政策如何影响美国少数群体的生活。
Universal Generalizations
::普遍化Minority groups have prospered in relation to how closely adapt to the mainstream dominant group.
::在如何密切适应主流主导群体方面,少数群体已经繁荣起来。The civil rights movement of the 1950’s and 1960’s allowed significant changes for African Americans and other minorities.
::1950年代和1960年代的民权运动为非裔美国人和其他少数民族带来了重大变化。Certain minority groups have more difficulty gaining acceptance in American society.
::某些少数群体在获得美国社会接受方面困难更大。Hispanics in the United States still are far behind non Hispanics in areas such as education and employment.
::在教育和就业等领域,美国的西班牙裔人仍然远远落后于非西班牙裔人。Not all Asian Americans groups are equally successful.
::并非所有的亚裔美国人团体都同样成功。Native American problems stem for the most part from the result of a history of changing governmental policies.
::美洲原住民问题主要源于政府政策变化的历史。
Guiding Questions
::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问How long does it take to reach the “American Dream”?
::达到“美国梦”需要多长时间?What kinds of conditions do minority groups in the United States experience?
::美国的少数群体有哪些条件?How have governmental policies affected the lives of minority groups?
::政府政策对少数群体的生活产生了何种影响?Describe the major challenges faced by Hispanics?
::描述西班牙裔面临的重大挑战?What lasting consequences did the civil rights movement bring to the United States?
::民权运动给美国带来了什么持久的后果?Why have Asian Americans been referred to as a “model minority”?
::为什么亚裔美国人被称为“模范少数”?What kinds of problems do other minority groups face?
::其他少数群体面临何种问题?THE AMERICAN DILEMMA
::美 美 美 美 美 地 利 尔 尔 尔 尔 尔 尔 尔 尔 尔 尔 尔In 1944, Swedish sociologist and economist Gunnar Mysdal examined race relations within the United States. Gunnar Myrdal’s An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy, served to crystallize the emerging awareness that racial discrimination and legal segregation could not endure in the U.S. Its moral wake-up call for Americans to live up to the democratic ideals of the “American Creed” became a powerful justification that united the major groups responsible for the civil rights movement.
::1944年,瑞典社会学家和经济学家Gunnar Mysdal研究了美国内部的种族关系。 Gunnar Myrdal的《美国困境:黑人问题和现代民主 》 ( American Dilimma : The Negro Ristrol and Modern Democracy)帮助明确了美国对种族歧视和法律隔离无法持续的认识。 其道德警醒号召美国人不辜负“美国克里德”的民主理想成为团结负责民权运动的主要群体的有力理由。Myrdal argued that there was a fundamental dilemma within individual Americans, who were torn between the ideals of what he called the American Creed—values of democracy and equal opportunity—and the realities of discrimination and segregation. “The American Negro problem is a problem in the heart of the American. It is there that the interracial tension has its focus. It is there that the decisive struggle goes on…” (An American Dilemma, Introduction). In Myrdal’s view, it was due to this struggle that change would inevitably take place.
::米达尔认为,美国人个人存在一个根本性的两难境地,即他所谓的美国民主和平等机会的克里德价值的理想与歧视和隔离的现实之间被撕裂。 “美国黑人问题是美国人心中的一个问题。 在那里,种族间的紧张关系有其焦点。 正是在那里,决定性的斗争还在继续......” (《美国迪拉姆玛,引言 》 ) 。 在米达尔看来,正是由于这场斗争,变革才会不可避免地发生。The study was also a clarion call for Americans to live up to the ideals of the American Creed or face a deterioration of the values and vision that unites the country and makes it great. “The Negro problem is an integral part of, or a special phase of, the whole complex of problems in the larger American civilization” (An American Dilemma, Introduction). Framing it this way dovetailed well with the ideas later expressed by Martin Luther King, Jr.; it helped black Americans and the white liberals who would join together in the civil rights movement articulate the urgency of addressing what Myrdal called “a century-long lag of public morals” (Southern, Gunnar Myrdal and Black-White Relations, p. 58).
::这项研究也是要求美国人不辜负美国克里德的理想,或者面对价值观和愿景的恶化,这些价值观和愿景使美国团结在一起,并使它变得伟大。 “黑人问题是美国大文明中整个复杂问题的一个组成部分或特殊阶段”(《美国困境》,导言)。 以这种方式把它与小马丁·路德·金后来表达的观点相配合;它帮助黑人美国人和白人自由主义者加入公民权利运动,明确了解决Myrdal所谓的“百年之久的公共道德落后”的迫切性(南方、贡纳尔·米尔达尔和黑白关系,第58页)。Another key facet of Myrdal’s argument was to set the study in an international context, predicting that, for Americans, having defined World War II as a struggle for liberty and equality and against Nazi racism would force a redefinition and reexamination of race in the United States. Myrdal also thought that the treatment of blacks in the U.S. would affect its international prestige and power.
::米达尔论点的另一个关键方面是将这项研究置于国际背景之下,预测对美国人来说,将第二次世界大战定义为争取自由和平等以及反对纳粹种族主义的斗争将迫使美国重新定义和重新审查种族。 米达尔还认为美国黑人的待遇将影响其国际声望和权力。The book’s argument was supported by extensive sociological research and data that demonstrated the dire state of blacks and the depth of discrimination. This gave the framing, which resonated on a moral level, a heft and persuasiveness that increased its impact. An American Dilemma drew upon thirty-one commissioned research memoranda on every aspect of black life and interracial relations. And Myrdal carried out extensive field research, touring the country and talking with black and white leaders, journalists, schoolteachers, clergy, academics, labor union members, businessmen, farmers, law enforcement officers and many more.
::这本书的论点得到了广泛的社会学研究和数据的支持,这些研究和数据显示了黑人的悲惨状况和歧视的深度。 由此形成了一个在道德层面引起共鸣的框框,它具有高度的说服力和说服力,从而增加了其影响。 一位美国人的Dilimma引用了31份关于黑人生活和种族间关系各个方面的委托研究备忘录。 而Myrdal进行了广泛的实地研究,巡视了这个国家,并与黑人和白人领导人、记者、教师、神职人员、学术界人士、工会成员、商人、农民、执法人员等进行了交谈。Gunnar Myrdal's An American Dillemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy , has been called one of the most influential works of social science of the twentieth century. Never before had so comprehensive and wide-ranging a study of the state of black Americans and interracial relations been carried out.
::Gunnar Myrdal的《美国迪伦玛:黑人问题和现代民主》被称作二十世纪最有影响力的社会科学作品之一。 从未对黑人美国人的状况和种族间关系进行过如此全面和广泛的研究。Throughout America's history, a struggle has existed between the ideals that America holds and actions that it performs. The early settlers created an image of the dominant group in American society- White Anglo- Saxon and Protestant (WASP). This image of what an American should be is a sharp contrast of the nation's multicultural reality. It has been this WASP image which all others groups have been measured against in the United States.
::在美国的整个历史中,美国所持有的理想和它所实施的行动之间存在着斗争。 早期的定居者创造了美国社会中占主导地位的群体 — — 白人盎格鲁-撒克逊人和新教(WASP ) — — 的形象。 这种关于美国人应该是什么形象的图像是美国多元文化现实的鲜明对比。 在美国,所有其他群体都以这种WASP形象为对照。For those minority groups who have adapted the WASP image, they have been more easily accepted into mainstream America. However, for other groups such as African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans, Native Americans have found it more difficult to gain acceptance in American society.
::对于调整了WASP形象的少数群体来说,他们更容易被主流美国接受。 但是,对于非裔美国人、西班牙裔美国人、亚裔美国人等其他群体来说,美国本土美国人更难获得美国社会的认可。According to the 2010 U.S. Census, approximately 36.3 percent of the population currently belongs to a racial or ethnic minority group: American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian American, Black or African American, Hispanic or Latino, and Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander.
::根据2010年美国人口普查,目前约有36.3%的人口属于一个种族或少数民族群体:美洲印第安人或阿拉斯加土著居民、亚裔美国人、黑人或非裔美国人、西班牙裔或拉美裔人、夏威夷土著人或其他太平洋岛民。Black or African American
::黑人或非裔美国人
Estimated population in 2005: 34.9 million
::2005年人口估计数:3 490万First language/s: English
::第一语言/第一语言:英语Religion/s: Christianity, Islam
::宗教:基督教、伊斯兰教African Americans make up 12.9 per cent of the US population, the second largest minority group (after Latinos), numbering approximately 38.8 million. Once called Negroes and now called ‘black' Americans or (evoking solidarity with other non-white minorities around the world) ‘people of colour', they are mainly descendants of slaves brought from Africa between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries.
::非裔美国人占美国人口的12.9%,美国是第二大少数民族群体(仅次于拉丁美洲),人口约为3,880万。 他们曾经被称为黑人,现在又被称为“黑人”美国人,或者(与世界上其他非白人少数民族团结一致)“有色人种 ” , 主要是十七世纪至十九世纪从非洲带来的奴隶的后裔。Their history of forced immigration to the United States is unique among US minorities and, compared to slaves elsewhere, African Americans were uniquely de-cultured and dehumanized, their misery treated as ‘natural' and benign. Today, they are an important minority in a nation with a singular degree of world influence. Much of the USA's vitality can be credited to African Americans, but white-black conflict remains a definitive, often sotto voce reality.
::美国人被迫移民美国的历史在美国少数民族中是独一无二的。 与其他地方的奴隶相比,非裔美国人有着独特的非文化化和非人化,他们的痛苦被当作“自然的”和良性的。 如今,他们是一个具有独特世界影响力的国家中的重要少数民族。 美国的大部分活力可以归功于非洲裔美国人,但白黑冲突仍然是最终的、经常是口头的。Much of the African American population is urban. According to the US Census of 2000 they make up 81.6 per cent of the Detroit population, 67.3 per cent of the population in New Orleans, 64.3 per cent of the population in Baltimore and 60 per cent of the population in Washington DC. Other cities with large African American populations are Atlanta, St Louis, Newark, Philadelphia and Cincinnati.
::根据美国2000年人口普查,非裔美国人占底特律人口的81.6%,新奥尔良人口的67.3%,巴尔的摩人口的64.3%,华盛顿特区人口的60%。 非洲裔美国人人口众多的其他城市有亚特兰大、圣路易斯、纽瓦克、费城和辛辛那提。The 2000 US Census found that African American men and women aged 16 and older had similar labour force participation rates (61 and 60%, respectively), and a higher proportion of African American women (30%) than African American men (20%) were in management, professional and related occupations. A higher proportion of African American men (28%) than African American women (10%) were in production, transportation and material-moving jobs. The highest concentrations of employed African American men were in these occupation groups.
::2000年美国人口普查发现,16岁和16岁以上的非裔美国人的劳动力参与率相似(分别为61%和60%),非裔美国人妇女(30%)比非裔美国人男子(20%)从事管理、专业和相关职业的比例更高,非裔美国人男子(28%)比非裔美国人妇女(10%)从事生产、运输和物质流动工作的比例更高,受雇的非裔美国人男子在这些职业群体中的比例最高。Historical Context
::历史背景背景Although slavery was instituted mostly for economic reasons, racist beliefs became entrenched as slavery and African Americans became linked in the white colonial mind. During the Revolutionary War, both slaves and free blacks fought for the Colonies, but the subsequent 1787 Constitution included three clauses reinforcing slavery. Blacks were designated as property and counted as ‘three-fifths of a person'. All told, slavery was an important part of the US economy for more than two centuries, despite slave revolts, an elaborate ‘underground railroad' network for escaped slaves, and consistent protest from white and black abolitionists.
::尽管奴隶制主要出于经济原因建立,但种族主义信仰随着奴隶制的建立而根深蒂固,非裔美国人则在白殖民思想中变得紧密相连。 在革命战争期间,奴隶和自由黑人都为殖民地而战,但后来的1787年《宪法》包括三个加强奴隶制的条款。 黑人被定为财产,并被算作“人的五分之三 ” 。 所有这些都表明,奴隶制是美国经济中一个重要部分,长达两个多世纪,尽管奴隶起义、一个精心策划的逃亡奴隶“地下铁路”网络以及白人和黑人废奴主义者的一贯抗议。Abolition of slavery
::废除奴隶制Between 1777 and 1804, each of the northern states responded to changing moralities and urban labour shortages by abolishing slavery. But in the south, slaves were key to the enormous plantation system. The issue became part of the growing North-South antipathy that culminated in the mid-nineteenth-century civil war. Towards the end of the war, in 1863, President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, ending slavery in most states.
::1777年到1804年间,北方各州都通过废除奴隶制来应对不断变化的道德和城市劳动力短缺。 但在南部,奴隶是巨大的种植园体系的关键。 这个问题成为了19世纪中叶内战导致的南北反感加剧的一部分。 1863年战争即将结束,亚伯拉罕·林肯总统签署了《解放宣言 》 , 结束了大多数州的奴隶制。During the ‘Reconstruction' period after the civil war, the thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the US Constitution finally guaranteed African Americans the rights of freedom and full citizenship, including the vote. Soon, African Americans were elected to Congress, were admitted to schools and began to integrate and even intermarry with whites. The first Civil Rights Act passed in 1875, guaranteed access to public facilities and accommodation without regard to race, colour or previous servitude.
::在内战之后的“重建”时期,《美国宪法》第十三、十四和十五修正案最终保障非裔美国人享有自由权和完全公民权,包括投票权。 不久,非裔美国人被选入国会,被录取入学,开始与白人融合甚至通婚。 1875年通过的第一项《民权法》保障了人们不分种族、肤色或先前的奴役状况使用公共设施和住所的权利。
Segregation
::隔离The optimism of the time did not last long. White bigots in many states bent the rules to restrict voting rights, and enforced segregation through fear and intimidation. From 1883 to 1952, ‘lynchings' (mob executions) of African Americans were reported every year, often with tacit official approval. This period also saw the advent of white supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan, many of which persist to this day. At the same time, state and federal courts were forging the ‘Jim Crow' system (named after an archetypal figure in the African American minstrel tradition), an apartheid doctrine in which blacks and whites were described as ‘separate-but-equal'. In 1883, the Civil Rights Act was deemed unconstitutional, and in 1896 the Supreme Court upheld the separate-but-equal rule in Plessey v. Ferguson .
::当时的乐观情绪并没有持续很久。 许多州的白人偏执分子通过恐惧和恐吓来破坏限制投票权和强制隔离的规则。 从1883年到1952年,每年都有报道说对非裔美国人实施“私刑 ” ( 暴徒处决 ) , 通常得到官方默许。 这一时期还出现了像Kulux Klan这样的白人优越团体,其中许多团体一直持续到今天。 与此同时,州法院和联邦法院正在建立“Jim Crow”制度(以非裔美国人小说传统中的古老人物命名 ) , 这是一种种族隔离主义,黑人和白人被称为“独立但平等 ” 。 1883年,《民权法》被视为违宪,1896年最高法院在Plessey诉Ferguson案中维持了独立但平等的规则。Riots and protest did little to stem the tide, and the African American condition did not improve visibly in the first half of the twentieth century. However, many African American musicians, artists and poets came to prominence in the ‘Harlem Renaissance' of the 1930s, and black athletes began to break colour bars in the Olympics and professional team sports. The African American community was developing autonomous institutions like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP, in 1901), the National Urban League (1911) and Caribbean-born Marcus Garvey's United Negro Improvement Association, which promoted black self-determination and the idea that blacks should go ‘back to Africa', culturally or even physically (1920s). African American colleges and universities became popular. The Supreme Court slowly eroded the bases of Jim Crow, deciding one by one against state laws that segregated interstate bus travel, housing and neighbourhoods, or withheld voting rights.
::暴动和抗议对遏制潮流毫无助益,而非裔美国人的状况在二十世纪上半叶没有明显改善。 然而,许多非裔美国人音乐家、艺术家和诗人在1930年代的“Harlem文艺复兴”中占据显要地位,黑人运动员开始打破奥运和职业队体育中的彩色栅栏。 非裔美国人社区正在发展自治机构,如全国有色人种进步协会(NAACP,1901年 ) 、 全国城市联盟(1911年)和加勒比出生的Marcus Garvey的黑人联合改良协会(United Negro Infraction Asociation Acsociation ) , 该协会促进黑人自决以及黑人在文化上甚至身体上应该“回到非洲”的观点(1920年代 ) 。 非裔美国人的学院和大学开始受到欢迎。 最高法院缓慢地侵蚀了Jim Crow的基地,一个州的法律将州间公共汽车旅行、住房和居民区隔离,或者剥夺投票权。
Civil rights
::公民权利The watershed Supreme Court ruling for African American civil rights came in 1954. Brown v. Topeka Board of Education held that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, and that ‘separate' was inherently unequal. The main legal plank of Jim Crow was demolished.
::1954年最高法院关于非裔美国人公民权利的分水岭裁决,Brown诉Topeka教育委员会(Topeka Council of Education Commission)指出,公立学校中的种族隔离不符合宪法,“单独”本质上是不平等的,Jim Crow的主要法律纲领被拆除。Energized by Brown and led by coalitions of black organizations with the inspiration of Dr Martin Luther King Jr, the Civil Rights Movement used non-violent resistance to shatter segregation in the early 1960s. Civil rights activists held sit-ins in segregated establishments, boycotted segregated buses and held ‘Freedom Rides' into segregated areas. Voter registration drives all over the South helped ensure that black voters would be represented. In 1963, 250,000 Americans - blacks, whites and others, including major religious leaders - participated in the March on Washington for civil rights. Dr King, awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, was assassinated by a white man in 1968. In 1986 a public holiday was instituted to commemorate his life, the first time a black American has been thus honoured. Support from Jewish organizations, church and labour groups, students and others gave the civil rights movement an inter-racial character, which made it much more effective. Still, some whites fought back. Lynchings were the most dramatic form of retaliation. Riots broke out in many urban centres, and police brutality against protestors was widespread. Many African Americans, especially youth, thought the non-violent style championed by King an inadequate response.
::20世纪60年代初,民权运动在马丁·路德·金博士的激励下,在布朗的激励下,在黑人组织联盟的带领下,在布朗的激励下,民权运动以非暴力抵抗方式在1960年代初期摧毁种族隔离。民权活动家在隔离的机构中举行静坐,抵制隔离的公共汽车,在隔离的地区举行`自由游行'。南方各地的选民登记运动都有助于确保黑人选民的代表性。1963年,25万美国人——黑人、白人和其他人,包括主要宗教领袖——参加了华盛顿的民权游行。1968年,荣获诺贝尔和平奖的King博士被一名白人刺杀。1986年,为纪念他的生命,首次纪念黑人美国人。犹太人组织、教会和劳工团体、学生和其他人给予民权运动一种种族间性质的支持,使其更加有效。不过,有些白人反攻。报复形式最为剧烈。许多城市中心发生暴动,警察对抗议者的暴行十分普遍。许多非裔美国人,特别是青年认为国王倡导非暴力风格的对策不够充分。However, in the early 1960s the shift towards equal rights gained support in the upper levels of government. The Voting Rights Act broke down entrenched and Byzantine regulations that prevented blacks from exercising their franchise. Blacks began to make gains in Congress and the Senate, and even bigger gains in regional and municipal politics. Affirmative-action measures helped establish a sizeable African American middle class for the first time.
::然而,在1960年代初,向平等权利的转变在政府高层获得了支持。 《投票权法》打破了阻止黑人行使选举权的根深蒂固的和拜占庭条例。 黑人开始在国会和参议院中有所收获,在地区和市政政治中也取得了更大的收益。 平权行动措施首次帮助建立了一个规模庞大的非洲裔美国人中产阶级。In the late 1960's and early 1970's, white and black children were ‘bussed' to schools outside their immediate neighbourhoods to promote school desegregation. Resentment and resistance to change came to focus on this issue. There were heated protests, and many white children were removed from the public system. During the 1970s and 1980s, ‘white flight' from many more-integrated cities to all-white suburbs left blacks and other minorities isolated in inner-city ghettos, whose tax bases and government infrastructure funding gradually declined. This was just one of the factors that the Civil Rights Movement could not anticipate, which would set back many of the victories of the 1960's.
::1960年代后期和1970年代初,白人和黑人儿童被“殴打”到邻近居民区以外的学校,以促进学校的隔离。反对和反对改变的情绪开始集中在这个问题上。出现了激烈的抗议,许多白人儿童被赶出公共系统。在1970年代和1980年代,“白色的逃亡”从许多更一体化的城市逃到所有白色郊区,让黑人和其他少数民族被孤立在市内贫民窟,他们的税收基础和政府基础设施资金逐渐减少。 这只是民权运动无法预料的因素之一,它会击退1960年代的许多胜利。
Education and progress
::教育和进步In higher education, the 1960s saw African Americans gain greater access to colleges and universities, and to courses and programmes on black American and African cultures. The ‘Afrocentric' history and cultural movement of the 1980s promoted new enthusiasm for scholarship within the black community, focusing on black people's contributions to US and world history and civilization. A group of ‘new black intellectuals' also emerged in publishing and the media as spokespeople for African American thought and scholarship.
::在高等教育领域,1960年代,非裔美国人获得更多的进入学院和大学的机会,以及更多进入美国黑人和非洲黑人文化课程和课程的机会。 1980年代的“以亚非中心为中心的”历史和文化运动在黑人社区内激发了新的奖学金热情,重点是黑人对美国和世界历史和文明的贡献。 在出版和媒体中也出现了一群“新黑人知识分子 ” , 作为非裔美国人思想和奖学金的发言人。The three decades after the advent of the Civil Rights Movement saw more progress by African Americans than the whole of the previous century. However, the living conditions of poorer African Americans - more than 40 per cent of the black population - declined further. The writer Andrew Hacker described the situation as tantamount to once again having two nations in the United States, ‘black and white, separate, hostile, unequal' (a reference to Gunnar Myrdal's watershed 1940s race study).
::民权运动成立30年后,非裔美国人取得的进步比上个世纪大得多,然而,较贫穷的非裔美国人(占黑人人口的40%以上)的生活条件进一步下降,作家安德鲁·哈克(Andrew Hacker)将这种情况描述为美国再次有两个国家“黑人和白人、独立、敌对、不平等”的情况(指贡纳尔·米尔达尔1940年代分水岭种族研究 ) 。
Current Issues
::当前问题Despite the surge in voter registration brought about by the 1993 National Voter Registration Act, black participation is still low. African Americans remain massively under-represented in office and in 2007 held only one seat in the US Senate and 42 in the House of Representatives (of which all are Democrats). Some critics say blacks are now effectively unrepresented, because Democrats know they can count on black votes whether or not they advocate African American interests. However, individual African Americans have made gains on the national scene. In 1991, Republican President George Bush appointed the neo-conservative African American Justice Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court. Colin Powell and Condoleezza Rice were close allies in his 2001 and 2004 cabinets with Rice eventually replacing Powell as Secretary of State.
::尽管1993年《国家选民登记法》导致选民登记激增,但黑人的参与率仍然很低。 非裔美国人仍然严重不足,2007年只获得美国参议院一个席位和众议院42个席位(其中均为民主党人 ) 。 一些批评家说黑人现在实际上无人任职,因为民主党人知道他们可以指望黑人投票,不管他们是否支持非裔美国人的利益。然而,非裔美国人个人在全国舞台上取得了进步。1991年,共和党总统乔治·布什任命新保守派非洲美洲法官克拉伦斯·托马斯为最高法院法官。 科林·鲍威尔和康多莉扎·赖斯在2001年和2004年的内阁中是亲密的盟友,赖斯最终取代鲍威尔为国务卿。On November 5 2008, Barack Hussein Obama (47) a first generation African American (partly of Kenyan heritage) who was virtually an unknown first term Democratic senator in 2004, defeated his Republican Party rival John Mc Cain to be elected the first black president in the history of the United States.
::2008年11月5日, 第一代非裔美国人(肯尼亚遗产的一部分)巴拉克·侯赛因·奥巴马(47岁)在2004年几乎是首任民主党参议员,
The victory which came after an arduous round of 56 primaries and caucuses and relentless coast to coast campaigning was a test of political skill as well as endurance and exposed the deep racial and gender divisions that continue to exist within the party as well as the country.
::这场胜利是在经过长达56次艰苦的初选和核心小组以及海岸无情的海岸竞选运动之后取得的,是对政治技巧和耐力的考验,暴露了该党以及该国内部仍然存在的深刻的种族和性别分歧。Given the racial history of the United States a significant number of African American voters were sceptical of his chances initially, and did not immediately embrace the Obama candidacy, However after a string of victories during the run-up primary elections in states with substantial majority white voters, there was a reassessment of opinion. This eventually led to 96 percent of African American voters casting their ballot for Obama versus three percent for McCain. Moreover the nationwide black vote rose by 2.88 million, to 16.3 million ( 13 per cent) with many African Americans becoming interested enough to register and vote for the first time in the November 2008 presidential election.
::鉴于美国的种族历史,相当数量的非裔美国选民对他最初的机会持怀疑态度,并且没有立即接受奥巴马的候选资格,然而,在白人选民占绝大多数的各州的初选期间,经过一系列胜利之后,人们重新评估了意见。 这最终导致96%的非裔美国选民投票支持奥巴马,而麦凯恩的选票为麦凯恩的选票为3%。 此外,全国黑人选票上升了288万张,达到1 630万张(13% ) , 许多非裔美国人在2008年11月的总统选举中首次有兴趣登记和投票。Turning to socio-economic indicators and issues, the statistics on black education are not promising. The 2000 US Census found that 27.7 per cent of African Americans had less than high school education, and only 14 per cent had an undergraduate or higher degree, compared with 19.6 and 24 per cent, respectively, of the total US population. One out of every three black children entering high school drops out, a rate twice as high as for white children. Although illiteracy among African Americans has consistently declined, at 1.6 per cent it is still four times higher than the white rate.
::谈到社会经济指标和问题,有关黑人教育的统计数据并不乐观,2000年美国人口普查发现,27.7%的非裔美国人受过的高中教育不足,只有14%的非裔美国人受过本科或高等教育,而美国总人口的本科或高等教育分别占19.6%和24%,每三名黑人儿童中就有一人高中毕业,其比率是白人儿童的两倍,虽然非裔美国人的文盲率一直下降,为1.6%,仍比白人高四倍。Economically, there is still a large gap between African Americans and whites. In 1999, the median earnings for both African American men and women were lower than those of the total US population, and much lower than those of their white counterparts, though the gender gap in earnings was smaller between African Americans than between men and women of the general US population. The median earnings of African American men were $30,886, compared with $39,020 for all men and $42,224 for white men. African American women's median earnings were $25,736, compared with $28,820 for all women and $30,777 for white women. African American Oprah Winfrey bucks this trend, however; in 2007 she was declared the world's richest female entertainer and is the world's first black billionaire.
::在经济方面,非裔美国人和白人之间仍然存在着巨大的差距。 1999年,非裔美国人男女的中位收入都低于美国总人口的中位收入,远远低于白人的中位收入,尽管非裔美国人之间收入的性别差距小于美国普通人口中男女收入的性别差距,但非裔美国人男子的收入中位收入为30 886美元,而全体男子为39 020美元,白人男子为42 224美元。非裔美国人妇女的收入中位收入为25 736美元,而全体妇女为28 820美元,白人妇女为30 777美元。非裔美国人的奥普拉·温弗雷(Oprah Winfrey)是这一趋势,不过,2007年,她被宣布为世界上最富有的女性艺人,是世界上第一个黑人富翁。Approximately one-quarter (24.7 per cent) of the black American population live below the poverty level, compared to less than a tenth (8.6 per cent) of whites. The number of African American females in poverty in 1999 was almost twice that of the total female population: 27 per cent compared with 14 per cent. The teenage motherhood rate among young African American women is extremely high, with up to 64 per cent of black children being born to single mothers. The black poverty rate is highest among single women with children. In 2003, there were an estimated 3.1 million black single mothers, 38 per cent of whom raised families below the poverty line.
::1999年非裔美国妇女贫困人数几乎是女性总人口的两倍:27%,14%;非裔美国年轻妇女的少女母亲比率极高,高达64%的黑人子女是单身母亲所生;有子女的单身妇女黑人贫困率最高;2003年,估计有310万黑人单身母亲,其中38%的家庭生活在贫困线以下。The unemployment rate for African Americans has consistently been at least twice that of whites since the Second World War. In 1999, 39.8 per cent of blacks were unemployed. Young black men, especially teenagers, encounter an even worse situation: in 2003, only one in five (20 per cent) of young black men aged 16-19 worked, compared to 40 per cent of their white counterparts.
::自第二次世界大战以来,非裔美国人的失业率一直至少是白人的两倍,1999年,39.8%的黑人失业,年轻的黑人男子,特别是青少年,遭遇更糟糕的情况:2003年,16-19岁的年轻黑人男子中只有五分之一(20%)工作,而白人男子中只有40%工作。The median income of black households in 2004 was $30,134 and the per capita income as low as $16,035, compared to a median income of $48,977 in white households and a per capita income of $27,414.
::2004年黑人家庭的中位收入为30 134美元,人均收入低至16 035美元,而白人家庭的中位收入为48 977美元,人均收入为27 414美元。African Americans have higher rates of drug abuse than the general population, although as individuals they are more likely to abstain altogether than whites. They are also at high risk for mental illness, heart disease, cancer, AIDS and other major diseases, due to a cluster of factors, including level of education, poverty, stress, poor health care, pollution and family instability.
::非裔美国人的药物滥用率高于一般人口,尽管作为个人,他们比白人更有可能完全戒烟,他们由于受教育程度、贫困、压力、保健不良、污染和家庭不稳定等一系列因素,也极有可能患精神病、心脏病、癌症、艾滋病和其他主要疾病。In 2000, African Americans made up 12.3 per cent of the total US population, and 43.7 per cent of its prison population. Newborn black males have a 1 in 4 chance of being incarcerated in their lifetime. Newborn white males, in contrast, have a lifetime chance of 1 in 23 of being incarcerated. Twelve per cent of African American males aged 20 to 29 years old, compared to 1.7 per cent of their white counterparts, were in prison or jail in 2005. In the most serious crime, homicide, 52.1 per cent of the perpetrators identified in 2004 were black, and ‘black-on-black’ violence is a serious concern, with 94 per cent of black homicide victims having been killed by blacks. Black crime rates, higher still than the already unusually high crime rate in the United States, have been exacerbated by teenage gang activity and drug-dealing in inner cities.
::2000年,非裔美国人占美国总人口的12.3%,占美国囚犯总数的43.7%;新生黑人男子一生有1/4的监禁机会;新生白人男子有1/3的监禁机会;新生白人男子有1/3的监禁机会;20至29岁的非裔美国人男子中,12%的20至29岁男子,而白人男子的1.7%,在2005年被监禁或监禁;在最严重的犯罪,即杀人罪中,2004年查明的罪犯中有52.1%是黑人,而 " 黑人对黑人 " 暴力是一个严重的问题,94%的黑人杀人受害者被黑人杀害;黑人犯罪率仍然高于美国本已异常高的犯罪率,由于青少年帮派活动和内城毒品交易而加剧。The practice of racial profiling by the police is widespread. There is ample evidence that black motorists are disproportionately stopped by the police for minor motoring offences because they are assumed to be engaging in more serious criminal activity. This practice, dubbed ‘Driving While Black’, is widespread.
::警方的种族貌相做法十分普遍。 有充分证据表明,黑人驾车者因轻微的汽车犯罪被警方拦截的比例过高,因为他们被认为参与更严重的犯罪活动。 被称为“在黑色时开车”的这种做法非常普遍。In 2001, the life expectancy for African American males was 68.6 years and for females 75.5 years, compared to 75 and 80.2, respectively, for their white counterparts. Infant mortality is more than twice as high for African American infants than it is for white, 13.9 and 5.8 deaths, respectively, per 1,000 live-births. The general health care for African Americans is disproportionately poor, a fact recognized in the Disadvantaged Minority Health Improvement Act of 1990.
::2001年,非裔美国人男性的预期寿命为68.6岁,女性为75.5岁,而白人男性的预期寿命分别为75岁和80.2岁,非裔美国人的婴儿死亡率是白人、13.9岁和5.8岁每1 000例活产婴儿的两倍多,非洲裔美国人的一般保健情况特别差,1990年《弱势少数民族健康改善法》承认这一事实。
Hispanic American or Latino
::西班牙裔美国人或拉美人
Estimated population in 2005: 41.9 million
::2005年人口估计数:4 190万First language/s: Spanish
::第一语言:西班牙语Religion/s: Christianity
::宗教/宗教:基督教Latinos are the fastest-growing minority group in the USA, having increased more than 60 per cent since 1990. Between 2004 and 2005 alone, the Latino population increased by 3.3 per cent, making 14.5 per cent of the total US population. These figures exclude people in institutions, including prisons and jails, and probably under-count undocumented immigrants. The Census Bureau projects that, by 2050, almost one out of every four Americans (24 per cent) will be Latino.
::拉美裔是美国增长最快的少数民族群体,自1990年以来增长了60%以上,仅在2004年至2005年期间,拉美裔人口就增长了3.3%,占美国总人口的14.5%,不包括监狱和监狱等机构中的人,以及可能人数不足的无证移民,人口普查局预测,到2050年,几乎每四名美国人中就有一人(24%)是拉美裔。In 2000, about 59.3 per cent of Latinos were Mexican Americans, 9.7 per cent were Puerto-Ricans, 3.5 per cent were Cubans, 5.1 per cent were from Central America (mainly El Salvador, Guatemala and Honduras), 4 per cent from South America (mainly Colombia, Ecuador and Peru), and 18.3 per cent from other places. Each of these groups favours nationally specific names over any general term, but ‘Latino' has emerged as the most popular alternative to ‘Hispanics', which is still favoured by government agencies and is used interchangeably with ‘Latinos'. The Latino groups that have grown most since 2000 were Salvadorans (increased by 39%), followed by Guatemalans (22%) and Hondurans (13%).
::2000年,拉丁美洲人中约有59.3%为墨西哥人,9.7%为波多黎各里卡人,3.5%为古巴人,5.1%来自中美洲(主要是萨尔瓦多、危地马拉和洪都拉斯),5.1%来自南美洲(主要是哥伦比亚、厄瓜多尔和秘鲁),4%来自南美洲(主要是哥伦比亚、厄瓜多尔和秘鲁),18.3%来自其他地方,其中每个群体在任何一般术语中都赞成本国地名,但“拉丁人”已成为最受欢迎的“西班牙人”的替代物,“西班牙人”仍然受到政府机构的青睐,并被与“拉丁美洲”互换使用,自2000年以来增长最多的拉丁人群体是萨尔瓦多人(增加了39%),其次是危地马拉人(22%)和洪都拉斯人(13%)。Latinos have lived in what is now the south-western USA for centuries but there are now large groups in every urban centre. Since the 1990s, growing numbers of Latinos have also settled in south and south-east USA. Between 1990 and 2000, North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama and Mississippi, have experienced the biggest increase in Latino population, estimated at 393.9 per cent, 299.6 per cent, 207.9 per cent and 148.4 per cent, respectively.
::几个世纪以来,拉丁美洲人一直生活在美国西南部,但现在每个城市中心都有大量人口,自1990年代以来,越来越多的拉丁美洲人也定居在美国南部和东南部,1990年至2000年期间,北卡罗来纳、格鲁吉亚、阿拉巴马和密西西比等地的拉丁美洲人口增长率最大,分别为393.9%、299.6%、207.9%和148.4%。In 2000, 69 per cent of Latino men worked, mainly in production and transportation (26%), construction and maintenance (22%) and services (19%). Fifty-three per cent of Latinas (Latino women) were also in the work force, mainly in sales and office occupations (34.8%) and services (25.6%).
::2000年,69%的拉丁美洲男子工作,主要是生产、运输(26%)、建筑和维修(22%)以及服务(19%);53%的拉丁美洲人(拉丁美洲妇女)也工作,主要是销售和办公室职业(34.8%)以及服务(25.6%)。A majority of Latinos are bilingual Spanish-speakers, and 75 per cent mostly speak Spanish at home. Two thirds are Roman Catholic by upbringing, though a growing number (around 29 per cent) are Protestants.
::大多数拉丁人是讲西班牙语的双语人,75%的人在家里讲西班牙语,三分之二的人是受过教养的罗马天主教徒,但越来越多的人(约29%)是新教徒。
Political and socio-economic indicators and issues
::政治和社会经济指标和问题Numbers, visibility and Chicano consciousness brought Latinos into the spotlight in the late 1970s. Yet during the 1980s many prominent Latinos (including city mayors and two state governors) slipped from prominence due to scandal and opposition. Latino electoral participation has remained low and Latino interests have been represented by a select few political figures nationally, but there is some indication that campaigns to increase Latino political participation have had some success. The National Association of Latino Elected Officials (NALEO) estimates that in the 2004 elections, over 7.5 million Latinos voted. This number represents a substantial increase of 27 per cent from the 2000 elections (5.9 million) but is still low relative to their number. Similarly, although the number of Latino appointed and elected officials has also increased to include, in 2005, 25 members of Congress, 232 state legislators and eight state officials, overall the number of Latino officials remains very low.
::1970年代后期,数字、能见度和希卡诺意识使拉丁美洲人受到关注,但在1980年代,由于丑闻和反对,许多拉丁美洲知名人士(包括市长和两名州州长)从显要地位上滑落了下来,拉丁美洲选举的参与率仍然很低,拉丁美洲的利益在全国由少数政治人物代表,但有迹象表明,提高拉丁美洲政治参与率的运动取得了一定的成功,全国拉丁当选官员协会估计,2004年的选举中,超过750万拉美人投票,这一数字比2000年的选举(590万)大幅增加了27%,但与人数相比仍然较低,同样,尽管拉丁美洲任命和当选官员的人数在2005年也有所增加,包括25名国会议员、232名州议员和8名州官员,但拉丁美洲官员的总人数仍然很低。The Latino population is on average 9 years younger than the general US population, and the average household is larger. Latinos have very low rates of education (only 52.4% graduate from high school, and as few as 10.4 per cent have an undergraduate degree, according to 2000 figures). Health services to Latino communities are ranked the poorest in the USA. Workplaces and communities of low-waged Latinos tend to have more hazardous environmental and safety conditions than the average. Latinos are now 90 per cent urban (compared with 75% of all Americans) and are often lumped in with African Americans as part of the urban ‘underclass'; on most measures they register somewhere between whites and blacks in socio-economic status. However, the extended family and social networks of the barrios, while they may hinder social mobility, have kept Latino neighbourhoods from eroding to the same level of anomie and illegality found in African American ghettos.
::拉丁美洲人口平均比美国一般人口低9岁,平均家庭人口较多;拉丁美洲人的受教育率非常低(只有52.4%的高中毕业生,只有10.4%的高中毕业生,只有10.4%的毕业生有大学本科学位,根据2000年的数字);拉丁美洲社区的保健服务排在美国最贫穷,工作场所和低工资拉丁美洲人社区的环境和安全条件往往比平均水平更危险。 现在,拉丁美洲人90%的城市人口(占所有美国人的75%),他们往往与非裔美国人混为一谈,成为城市“下层”的一部分;但是,他们登记的大部分措施是在白人和黑人之间,处于社会经济地位;然而,巴里奥斯的扩大家庭和社会网络虽然可能阻碍社会流动性,却使拉丁美洲居民区不至于腐蚀到非奥米和非裔美国人贫民区的非法程度。In 2000, the median earnings of Latino men ($25,400) and women ($21,634) were substantially lower than those of men and women in the general US population ($37,057 and $27,194, respectively). Although there was a smaller gender gap in earnings in the Latino community than in the workforce overall, there were wide gaps in earnings within it, with Cuban American men ($31,527) and women ($26,254) being the highest earners, and Central American men and women earning as little as $22,423 and $18,588, respectively. In contrast, the average family earnings of Central Americans were the highest among the different Latino groupings ($42,824) and substantially higher than the average earnings of Latino families as a whole ($34,397).
::2000年,拉丁美洲男子(25 400美元)和妇女(21 634美元)的中位收入大大低于美国一般人口中的男女收入(分别为37 057美元和27 194美元),尽管拉丁美洲社区收入的性别差距小于整个劳动力,但内部收入差距很大,古巴男子(31 527美元)和妇女(26 254美元)是收入最高者,中美洲男女收入分别小于22 423美元和18 588美元,而中美洲男女平均家庭收入在拉丁美洲不同群体中最高(42 824美元),大大高于整个拉丁美洲家庭的平均收入(34 397美元)。Anti-immigrant sentiments, the shift from manufacturing to service jobs and urban decay have undermined Latino economic and social stability. In 2004, 21.9 per cent of American Latinos lived below the poverty line, compared to 8.6 per cent of whites. Within the various Latino groups, Dominicans were the poorest, with 27.5 per cent of the community living below the poverty line, compared to 14.6 per cent of Cubans and 15 per cent of South Americans (1999 figures).
::2004年,拉丁美洲21.9%的拉美人生活在贫困线以下,而白人为8.6%;在拉丁美洲各群体中,多米尼加人最贫穷,27.5%的社区生活在贫困线以下,而古巴人为14.6%,南美洲人为15%(1999年数字)。Current issues
::当前问题Latinos continue to suffer high levels of poverty, ill-health, discrimination, arrest and incarceration. Furthermore, Latinos have the highest high school drop out rate of any minority group in the United States. One in five Latinos lives below the poverty line, and one in three has no health insurance coverage. More than twice as many young Latino men are in prison or jail compared to young white men. The Immigration Reform and Control Act and other immigration policies and laws continue to marginalize and criminalize immigrants, and produce hiring discrimination against all Latinos by employers who fear immigration service raids. Arizona, for example, has passed Proposition 200, a ballot initiative denying basic public services to undocumented immigrants. The USA-Mexico border continues to claim lives, with an estimated 124 deaths occurring along the Arizona border in 2005 alone.
::拉丁美洲人继续遭受严重的贫穷、健康不良、歧视、逮捕和监禁;此外,拉丁美洲人在美国任何少数群体中辍学率最高。五分之一的拉美人生活在贫困线以下,三分之一的拉美人没有医疗保险;拉丁美洲青年男子在监狱或监狱中的人数是白人青年男子的两倍以上;《移民改革和管制法》及其他移民政策和法律继续排斥移民并将移民定罪,并导致担心移民服务突袭的雇主对所有拉美人进行雇用歧视。 例如,亚利桑那州通过了200号提案,这是剥夺无证移民基本公共服务的投票倡议。 仅2005年,美国-墨西哥边境就继续夺去生命,亚利桑那边境沿线估计就有124人死亡。A study released in May 2008 by the USA Center for disease control revealed that Hispanics (Latinos) who make up about 14 percent of the US working age population die at higher rates than other laborers, with 1 in 3 of the deaths occurring in the construction industry.
::美国疾病控制中心2008年5月发布的一项研究表明,占美国劳动适龄人口14%的西班牙裔(拉美裔)死亡率高于其他劳动力,其中三分之一的死亡发生在建筑业。In 2006 the annual death for Hispanic workers was 5 per 100,000 compared to 4 for for non-Hispanic white workers and 3.7 for African Americans.
::2006年,西班牙裔工人的年死亡率为每10万人5例,非西班牙裔白人工人为4例,非裔美国人为3.7例。This is partly because Hispanics tend to hold more high-risk jobs than those in other ethnic groups. Additionally many who work in the construction industry are recently arrived undocumented immigrants who besides facing language and literacy barriers also have poor job training, all of which hinder the understanding of safety precautions and the risks associated with certain tasks.
::部分原因在于西班牙裔西班牙人往往比其他族裔群体从事的高风险工作更多,此外,许多在建筑业工作的无证移民是最近抵达的,他们除了面临语言和识字障碍之外,还缺乏就业培训,所有这些都妨碍了人们对安全防范措施的理解和某些任务的风险。The most recent analysis (2003-06) found that 2 of every 3 Hispanic workers who died on the job were foreign-born and about 70 percent of the foreign-born fatalities were migrants from Mexico.
::最新分析(2003-06年)发现,每3名因工作死亡的西班牙裔工人中,有2名是外国出生的,大约70%的外国出生的死亡人数是来自墨西哥的移民。The highest number of Hispanic deaths were in the states that tend towards high concentrations of undocumented migrant workers, such as California, Texas and Florida.
::西班牙裔死亡人数最多的州是加利福尼亚州、得克萨斯州和佛罗里达州等无证移徙工人高度集中的州。For Latinos, addressing and dealing with educational,language and occupational needs is crucial to them achieving the American dream.
::对于拉美人来说,解决和处理教育、语言和职业需求对于他们实现美国梦想至关重要。Immigration issues
::移民移民问题Mexican Americans, especially those who are here illegally, are at the center of a national debate about immigration. Myers (2007) observes that no other minority group (except the Chinese) has immigrated to the United States in such an environment of illegality. He notes that in some years, three times as many Mexican immigrants may have entered the United States illegally as those who arrived legally. It should be noted that this is due to enormous disparity of economic opportunity on two sides of an open border, not because of any inherent inclination to break laws. In his report, “Measuring Immigrant Assimilation in the United States,” Jacob Vigdor (2008) states that Mexican immigrants experience relatively low rates of economic and civil assimilation. He further suggests that “the slow rates of economic and civic assimilation set Mexicans apart from other immigrants, and may reflect the fact that the large numbers of Mexican immigrants residing in the United States illegally have few opportunities to advance themselves along these dimensions.”
::墨西哥人,特别是非法入境的墨西哥人,是全国移民问题辩论的中心。迈尔斯(2007年)指出,没有任何其他少数民族群体(中国人除外)在这种非法环境中移民到美国。他指出,几年来,非法进入美国的墨西哥移民可能比合法入境移民多三倍。 应当指出,这是因为开放边界两侧的经济机会差异巨大,并非因为存在任何违法的固有倾向。 雅各布·维格多尔(Jacob Vigdor(2008年)在报告中说,墨西哥移民的经济和公民同化率相对较低。 他还说,“经济和公民同化速度缓慢,使墨西哥人与其他移民相隔开来,并可能反映出大量居住在美国的非法墨西哥移民在这些方面没有多少机会前进。 ”By contrast, Cuban Americans are often seen as a model minority group within the larger Hispanic group. Many Cubans had higher socioeconomic status when they arrived in this country, and their anti-Communist agenda has made them welcome refugees to this country. In south Florida, especially, Cuban Americans are active in local politics and professional life. As with Asian Americans, however, being a model minority can mask the issue of powerlessness that these minority groups face in U.S. society.
::相比之下,美籍古巴人往往被视为西班牙裔大群体中的模范少数民族群体。 许多古巴人抵达美国时拥有更高的社会经济地位,他们的反共主义议程使他们欢迎难民来到这个国家。 在佛罗里达南部,特别是美籍古巴人活跃在本地政治和职业生活中。 然而,像亚洲裔美国人一样,作为模范少数民族可以掩盖这些少数民族在美国社会所面临的无能为力问题。
ARIZONA’S SENATE BILL 1070
Protesters in Arizona dispute the harsh new anti-immigration law. (Photo courtesy of rprathap/flickr)
::亚利桑那州的抗争者对严酷的新反移民法提出争议。As both legal and illegal immigrants, and with high population numbers, Mexican Americans are often the target of stereotyping, racism, and discrimination. A harsh example of this is in Arizona, where a new stringent immigration law—known as SB 1070 (for Senate Bill 1070)—has caused a nationwide controversy. The law requires that during a lawful stop, detention, or arrest, Arizona police officers must establish the immigration status of anyone they suspect may be here illegally. The law makes it a crime for individuals to fail to have documents confirming their legal status, and it gives police officers the right to detain people they suspect may be in the country illegally.
::在亚利桑那州,新的严格移民法称为SB 1070(参议院第1070号法案),引起了全国性的争议,该法规定,在合法停留、拘留或逮捕期间,亚利桑那州警察必须确定他们怀疑可能非法居留的任何人的移民身份,法律规定个人如没有确认其法律地位的文件,即属犯罪,警察有权拘留他们怀疑可能在该国非法居留的人。To many, the most troublesome aspect of this law is the latitude it affords police officers in terms of whose citizenship they may question. Having “reasonable suspicion that the person is an alien who is unlawfully present in the United States” is reason enough to demand immigration papers (Senate Bill 1070 2010). Critics say this law will encourage racial profiling (the illegal practice of law enforcement using race as a basis for suspecting someone of a crime), making it hazardous to be caught “Driving While Brown,” a takeoff on the legal term Driving While Intoxicated (DWI) or the slang reference of “Driving While Black.” Driving While Brown refers to the likelihood of getting pulled over just for being nonwhite.
::对许多人来说,该法最麻烦的方面是它赋予警官以他们可以质疑其公民身份的回旋余地。 “合理怀疑此人是在美国非法居留的外国人”就足以成为要求移民证件的理由(参议院法案1070(2010年) 。 批评者说,这项法律将鼓励种族貌相(执法以种族作为怀疑犯罪对象的依据的非法做法 ) , 使得被抓住“在布朗时开车”是危险的, 是对合法术语“在醉酒时驾驶(DWI)”的起飞或“在黑人时驾驶”的俗语引用。 驾驶“在黑人时驾驶 ” 指的是仅仅因为非白人而被撤回的可能性 。SB 1070 has been the subject of many lawsuits, from parties as diverse as Arizona police officers, the American Civil Liberties Union, and even the federal government, which is suing on the basis of Arizona contradicting federal immigration laws (ACLU 2011). The future of SB 1070 is uncertain, but many other states have tried or are trying to pass similar measures. Do you think such measures are appropriate?
::来自亚利桑那州警官、美国公民自由联盟、甚至联邦政府等不同党派的SB 1070成为许多诉讼案的主题。 联邦政府根据亚利桑那州违反联邦移民法(ACLU 2011)提起诉讼。 SB 1070的未来不确定,但其他许多州也尝试或试图通过类似措施。 你认为这些措施合适吗?Asian American
::亚裔亚裔亚裔亚裔
Estimated population in 2005: 14.37 million
::2005年人口估计数:1 437万Ethnicity: Chinese, Filipino, Asian Indian, Korean, Vietnamese, Japanese, Cambodian, Bangladeshi, Thai, Pakistani, Hmong.
::民族:中文、菲律宾文、亚洲印度文、韩文、越南文、日文、柬埔寨文、孟加拉文、泰文、巴基斯坦文、苗族。First language/s: Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Vietnamese, Japanese, other Asian languages, English
::中文、韩文、菲律宾文、越南文、日文、其他亚洲语文、英文Religion/s: Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, Hinduism
::宗教:基督教、佛教、伊斯兰教、印度教Asian Americans represent a great diversity of cultures and backgrounds. The experience of a Japanese American whose family has been in the United States for three generations will be drastically different from a Laotian American who has only been in the U.S. for a few years. Chinese, Japanese, and Vietnamese immigrants have differences between their experiences in America.
::亚裔美国人代表着多种多样的文化和背景。 一个日本裔美国人,其家庭在美国三代人,其经历将完全不同于一个只在美国呆了几年的老挝裔美国人。 中国、日本和越南移民在美国的经历各不相同。‘Asian Pacific American' or ‘Asian American' are pan-ethnic terms designating the many communities of Asian immigrants and their descendants in the USA. These terms have arisen in response to the common discrimination and immigrant experiences the different communities share, although specific group designations, such as ‘Korean American', are also used. Asian Pacific Americans are the second fastest growing group in the USA, having increased in number from 877,934 in 1960 to 7 million in 1990 and over 12 million in the 2000 Census count.
::“亚裔美国人”或“亚裔美国人”是泛民族术语,指指指美国境内许多亚洲移民及其后裔社区。 这些术语是针对不同社区共同的歧视和移民经历而出现的,尽管也使用了“美籍朝鲜人”等特定群体名称。 亚裔美国人是美国第二增长最快的群体,从1960年的877 934人增加到1990年的700万,2000年人口普查数字超过1 200万。Between 2004 and 2005 alone, the estimated number of Asian Americans has increased by 3 per cent, up from 13,956,004 to 14,376,658. This increase was due to immigration (182,126 people) and natural increase (226,286 people). Of the Asian American population in 2004, the largest ethnic group was the Chinese, numbering 2.8 million (23.4%), followed by Asian Indians, numbering 2.2 million (18.6%), 2.1 million Filipinos (17.8%), 1.3 million Vietnamese (10.5%), 1.2 million Koreans (10.3%) and 832,039 (6.9%) Japanese.
::仅在2004年至2005年期间,亚裔美国人的估计人数就增加了3%,从13 956 004人增加到14 376 658人,增加的原因是移民(182 126人)和自然增长(226 286人),2004年亚裔美国人中,最大的族裔群体是中国人,人口为280万(23.4%),其次是亚洲印第安人,人数为220万(18.6%)、210万菲律宾人(17.8%)、130万越南人(10.5%)、120万朝鲜人(10.3%)和832 039人(6.9%)。
Factors for Immigration
::移民因素The national and ethnic diversity of Asian American immigration history is reflected in the variety of their experiences in joining American society. Asian immigrants have come to the United States in waves, at different times, and for different reasons.
::亚裔美国人移民历史的民族和种族多样性反映在他们加入美国社会的各种经历中。 亚洲移民以不同原因、不同时间、不同时间和不同原因涌向美国。The first Asian immigrants to come to the United States in the mid-19th century were Chinese. These immigrants were primarily men whose intention was to work for several years in order to earn incomes to support their families in China. Their main destination was the American West, where the Gold Rush was drawing people with its lure of abundant money. The construction of the Transcontinental Railroad was underway at this time, and the Central Pacific section hired thousands of migrant Chinese men to complete the laying of rails across the rugged Sierra Nevada mountain range. Chinese men also engaged in other manual labor like mining and agricultural work. The work was grueling and underpaid, but like many immigrants, they persevered.
::19世纪中叶来到美国的首批亚洲移民是中国人。这些移民主要是打算工作几年以赚取收入养家糊口的男性。他们的主要目的地是美国西部,黄金拉什以大量金钱吸引人们。 跨大陆铁路建设工程此时正在进行,中太平洋部分雇用了数千名中国移民男子在崎岖的塞拉内华达山脉完成铁路铺设工作。中国人还从事其他体力劳动,如采矿和农业劳动。 工作既疲软又报酬低,但和许多移民一样,他们坚持不懈。Japanese immigration began in the 1880s, on the heels of the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. Many Japanese immigrants came to Hawaii to participate in the sugar industry; others came to the mainland, especially to California. Unlike the Chinese, however, the Japanese had a strong government that negotiated with the United States government to ensure the well-being of their immigrants. Japanese men were able to bring their wives and families to the United States, and were thus able to produce second- and third-generation Japanese Americans more quickly than their Chinese counterparts.
::日本移民始于1880年代,紧接1882年《中国排外法》之后的1880年代。 许多日本移民来到夏威夷参加糖业;其他移民来到大陆,特别是加利福尼亚州。 然而,与中国人不同,日本人有一个强大的政府与美国政府谈判,以确保移民的福祉。 日本人能够把他们的妻子和家人带到美国,从而能够比中国人更快地生产第二代和第三代日本裔的美国人。The most recent large-scale Asian immigration came from Korea and Vietnam and largely took place during the second half of the 20th century. While Korean immigration has been fairly gradual, Vietnamese immigration occurred primarily post-1975, after the fall of Saigon and the establishment of restrictive communist policies in Vietnam. Whereas many Asian immigrants came to the United States to seek better economic opportunities, Vietnamese immigrants came as political refugees, seeking asylum from harsh conditions in their homeland. The Refugee Act of 1980 helped them to find a place to settle in the United States.
::最近亚洲大规模移民来自韩国和越南,主要发生在20世纪下半叶,虽然韩国移民是相当渐进的,但越南移民主要发生在1975年后,在西贡垮台和在越南实行限制性共产主义政策之后。 虽然许多亚洲移民来到美国寻求更好的经济机会,但越南移民却作为政治难民来到美国,在他们的祖国艰苦条件下寻求庇护。1980年的《难民法》帮助他们找到了在美国定居的地方。
Thirty-five Vietnamese refugees wait to be taken aboard the amphibious USS Blue Ridge (LCC-19). They are being rescued from a 35-foot fishing boat 350 miles northeast of Cam Ranh Bay, Vietnam, after spending eight days at sea. (Photo courtesy of U.S. Navy/Wikimedia Commons)
::35名越南难民在海上渡过8天后,正从越南卡姆兰湾东北350英里处的一艘35英尺长的渔船上获救。 (Photo由美国海军/维基媒体公域提供)History of Intergroup Relations
::群体间关系历史Chinese immigration came to an abrupt end with the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882. This act was a result of anti-Chinese sentiment burgeoned by a depressed economy and loss of jobs. White workers blamed Chinese migrants for taking jobs, and the passage of the Act meant the number of Chinese workers decreased. Chinese men did not have the funds to return to China or to bring their families to America, so they remained physically and culturally segregated in the Chinatowns of large cities. Later legislation, the Immigration Act of 1924, further curtailed Chinese immigration. The Act included the race-based National Origins Act, which was aimed at keeping American ethnic stock as undiluted as possible by reducing “undesirable” immigrants. It was not until after the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that Chinese immigration again increased and many Chinese families were reunited.
::中国移民突然随着1882年《中国排斥法》的出台而告终,这是反华情绪因经济萧条和失业而激起的结果。白人工人指责中国移民从事工作,该法的通过意味着中国工人人数减少。中国男子没有钱返回中国或带家人到美国,因此在大城市的中国城区仍然在身体和文化上隔离。后来的立法,即1924年的《移民法》进一步限制了中国移民。该法包括了基于种族的《民族起源法》,其目的是通过减少“不合格”移民,尽可能保持美国族裔的未消化状态。直到1965年的《移民和国籍法》颁布之后,中国移民才再次增加,许多中国家庭才重新团聚。Although Japanese Americans have deep, long-reaching roots in the U.S., their history here has not always been smooth. The California Alien Land Law of 1913 was aimed at them and other Asian immigrants, and it prohibited aliens from owning land. An even uglier action was the Japanese internment camps of World War II, discussed earlier as an illustration of expulsion.
::尽管美籍日本人在美国有着深刻的、深远的根基,但他们在这里的历史并非始终是平坦的。 1913年的《加利福尼亚外国人土地法》针对他们和其他亚洲移民,禁止外国人拥有土地。 更丑的举动是二战日本拘留营,前面讨论的驱逐的例子就是二战日本拘留营。
Current Issues
::当前问题Asian Americans certainly have been subject to their share of racial prejudice, despite the seemingly positive stereotype as the model minority. The model minority stereotype is applied to a minority group that is seen as reaching significant educational, professional, and socioeconomic levels without challenging the existing establishment.
::亚裔美国人当然遭受了种族偏见的侵害,尽管他们似乎以模范少数群体为模范。 示范少数群体的定型观念适用于被视为达到相当程度的教育、专业和社会经济水平的少数群体,而没有挑战现有机构。This stereotype is typically applied to Asian groups in the United States, and it can result in unrealistic expectations, putting a stigma on members of this group that do not meet the expectations. Stereotyping all Asians as smart and capable can also lead to a lack of much-needed government assistance and to educational and professional discrimination.
::这种定型观念通常适用于美国的亚洲集团,并可能导致不切实际的期望,给这一集团的成员带来不符合期望的污名。 将所有亚洲人都定型为聪明和有能力的,也可能导致缺乏急需的政府援助以及教育和专业歧视。American Indians
::美洲印第安人
Estimated population in 2000: 1.77 million
::2000年人口估计数: 177万Ethnicity: Indigenous
::族裔:土著First language/s: English, Navajo, Pueblo, Apache, other native languages
::第一种语言:英语、纳瓦霍语、普韦洛语、阿帕奇语、其他本族语言Religion/s: Christianity, native religions
::宗教/宗教:基督教、本土宗教Native Americans, the indigenous people of what is now the mainland USA, are not a homogeneous group but members of hundreds of nations with different linguistic, social, cultural and economic traits.
::土著美国人,即现在美国大陆的土著人民,不是一个同质群体,而是数百个具有不同语言、社会、文化和经济特征的民族的成员。In the 2000 US Census 1.77 million people reported being of Native American origin. An additional 1.1 million people reported Native American origin together with another race. Native Americans live throughout the USA, especially in the rural west, and most often speak English or their own traditional language. The majority were converted to Christianity in early colonial times, but some have always maintained traditional religious practices and traditional spirituality has experienced a revival in recent decades.
::在2000年的美国人口普查中,177万人报告说原籍为美洲原住民,另有110万人报告与另一种族一起出生于美洲原住民。 美洲原住民居住在美国各地,特别是在西部农村地区,他们通常会说英语或自己的传统语言。 大多数人在殖民时代早期就已皈依基督教,但有些人一直保持传统的宗教习俗,传统精神也在最近几十年里有所恢复。Native Americans are also commonly called American Indians (a misnomer of historic proportions but a prevalent one), or by specific national designations such as Mohawk, Creek, Chippewa and Hopi. Recognized nations (‘tribes' in official parlance) live on reserved lands of varying sizes and populations. In 2000, the largest tribes were Cherokee (729,533), Navajo (298,197), Choctaw (158,774), Sioux (153,360), Chippewa (149,669), Apache (96,833), Blackfeet (85,750), Iroquois (80,822) and Pueblo (74,085). Around 33.5 per cent of Native Americans live in reservations and trust lands. They are represented in all sectors, but around a quarter work in sales and office occupations, and over a fifth are service providers.
::美洲原住民通常也称为美洲印第安人(一种历史比例的错误,但流行的错误),或以诸如莫霍克、克里克、奇佩瓦和霍皮等特定国家名称。 公认的民族(官方语中的“部落”)居住在不同规模和人口的保留土地上。 2000年,最大的部落是切罗基人(729 533人)、纳瓦霍人(298 197人)、乔克托人(158 774人)、苏人(153 360人)、奇普瓦人(149 669人)、阿帕奇人(149 669人)、黑菲人(85 833人)、黑菲人(85 750人)、伊罗科伊人(80 822人)和人民(74 085人),约33.5%的美洲原住民居住在保留地和托管地,他们在所有部门都有代表,但大约四分之一从事销售和办公职业,超过五分之一是服务提供者。
How and Why They Came
::他们是如何到来的,他们为何到来,The earliest immigrants to America arrived millennia before European immigrants. Dates of the migration are debated with estimates ranging from between 45,000 and 12,000 BCE. It is thought that early Indians migrated to this new land in search of big game to hunt, which they found in huge herds of grazing herbivores in the Americas. Over the centuries and then the millennia, Native American culture blossomed into an intricate web of hundreds of interconnected tribes, each with its own customs, traditions, languages, and religions.
::最早到美国的移民比欧洲移民早几千年抵达美国。对移民日期的辩论估计在45,000到12,000个BCE之间。 人们认为,早期的印度人移民到这个新的土地上寻找狩猎的大游戏,他们在美洲的放牧食草动物群中发现了这些大猎物。 几个世纪后千年,美国土著文化蓬勃发展成一个由数百个相互联系的部落组成的错综复杂的网络,每个部落都有自己的习俗、传统、语言和宗教。
History of Intergroup Relations
::群体间关系历史Native American culture prior to European settlement is referred to as Pre-Columbian: that is, prior to the coming of Christopher Columbus in 1492. Mistakenly believing that he had landed in the East Indies, Columbus named the indigenous people “Indians:” a name that has persisted for centuries despite it being a geographical misnomer used to homogenously label over 500 distinct people groups who have their own languages and traditions.
::哥伦布误以为他已经登陆东印度群岛,将土著人民命名为“印度人 : ” , 尽管这个地名在地理上被误名, 却持续了几个世纪, 曾经有500多个拥有本民族语言和传统的不同族群同名。The history of intergroup relations between European colonists and Native Americans is a brutal one that most Americans are familiar with. As discussed in the section on genocide, the effect of European settlement of the Americans was to nearly destroy the indigenous population. And although Native Americans’ lack of immunity to European diseases caused the most deaths, overt mistreatment of Native Americans by Europeans was equally devastating.
::欧洲殖民者和美洲原住民之间群体间关系的历史是大多数美国人熟知的残酷历史。 正如关于种族灭绝的一节所讨论,美国裔欧洲人定居的影响几乎摧毁了土著人口。 尽管美国原住民对欧洲疾病缺乏豁免权造成了最多死亡,但欧洲人对美洲原住民的公然虐待同样具有毁灭性。From the first Spanish colonists to the French, English, and Dutch who followed, European settlers took what land they wanted, expanding across the continent at will. If indigenous people tried to retain their stewardship of the land, Europeans fought them off with superior weapons. A key element of this issue is the indigenous view of land and land ownership. Most tribes considered the earth a living entity whose resources they were stewards of, the concepts of land ownership and conquest didn’t exist in Native American society. Europeans’ domination of the Americas was indeed a conquest; one scholar points out that Native Americans are the only minority group in the United States whose subordination occurred purely through conquest by the dominant group (Marger 1993).
::从第一批西班牙殖民者到后来的法国、英国和荷兰人,欧洲定居者随意地拿走了他们想要的土地,遍及整个大陆。 如果土著人民试图保留对土地的管理权,欧洲人就用高级武器把他们赶走。 这个问题的一个关键因素是土著人对土地和土地所有权的看法。 大多数部落认为地球是活实体,他们的资源由他们掌管,土地所有权和征服的概念在美洲原住民社会中并不存在。 欧洲人对美洲的统治的确是一种征服;一位学者指出,美洲原住民是美国唯一的少数人群体,其从属地位完全来自于占优势的群体(Marger 1993 ) 。After the establishment of the United States government, discrimination against Native Americans was codified and formalized in a series of laws intended to subjugate them and keep them from gaining any power. Some of the most impactful laws are as follows:
::美国政府成立后,一系列旨在征服美洲原住民并阻止他们取得任何权力的法律编纂和正式确立了对美洲原住民的歧视。-
The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced the relocation of any native tribes east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river.
::1830年《印第安人迁移法》强迫密西西比河以东的任何土著部落搬迁到河以西。 -
The Indian Appropriation Acts funded further removals and declared that no Indian tribe could be recognized as an independent nation, tribe, or power with which the American government would have to make treaties. This made it even easier for the U.S. government to take land it wanted.
::印度拨款法案为进一步的迁移提供了资金,并宣布任何印第安人部落都不能被承认为一个独立的民族、部落或权力,美国政府必须与之签订条约。 这让美国政府更容易获得它想要的土地。 -
The Dawes Act of 1887 reversed the policy of isolating Native Americans on reservations, instead forcing them onto individual properties that were intermingled with white settlers, thereby reducing their capacity for power as a group.
::1887年《Dawes法》扭转了在保留地上孤立土著美国人的政策,而是强迫他们进入与白人定居者混杂在一起的个人财产,从而降低了他们作为一个群体的权力能力。
Native American culture was further eroded by the establishment of Indian boarding schools in the late 19th century. These schools, run by both Christian missionaries and the United States government, had the express purpose of “civilizing” Native American children and assimilating them into white society. The boarding schools were located off-reservation to ensure that children were separated from their families and culture. Schools forced children to cut their hair, speak English, and practice Christianity. Physical and sexual abuses were rampant for decades; only in 1987 did the Bureau of Indian Affairs issue a policy on sexual abuse in boarding schools. Some scholars argue that many of the problems that Native Americans face today result from almost a century of mistreatment at these boarding schools.
::19世纪末,印第安人寄宿学校的建立进一步侵蚀了美洲土著文化,这些学校由基督教传教士和美国政府管理,其明确目的是“文明”美洲土著儿童,将他们同化为白人社会,寄宿学校设在非保留地点,以确保儿童与家庭和文化分离,学校强迫儿童理发、讲英语和信奉基督教,身体虐待和性虐待持续了几十年;直到1987年,印第安人事务局才颁布关于寄宿学校性虐待的政策,一些学者认为,美洲土著今天面临的许多问题是这些寄宿学校近一个世纪的虐待造成的。
Current IssuesThe eradication of Native American culture continued until the 1960s, when Native Americans were able to participate in and benefit from the civil rights movement. The Indian Civil Rights Act of 1968 guaranteed Indian tribes most of the rights of the United States Bill of Rights. New laws like the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975 and the Education Assistance Act of the same year recognized tribal governments and gave them more power. Indian boarding schools have dwindled to only a few, and Native American cultural groups are striving to preserve and maintain old traditions to keep them from being lost forever.
::美洲原住民文化的根除一直持续到1960年代,当时美洲原住民能够参与和受益于民权运动;1968年《印度民权法》保障印第安人部落的大部分权利;1975年《印度自决法》和同年《教育援助法》等新法律承认部落政府,并赋予它们更多权力;印度寄宿学校只缩小到少数,美洲原住民文化团体正在努力保存和保持旧传统,防止它们永远消失。However, Native Americans (some of whom now wished to be called American Indians so as to avoid the “savage” connotations of the term “native”) still suffer the effects of centuries of degradation. Long-term poverty, inadequate education, cultural dislocation, and high rates of unemployment contribute to Native American populations falling to the bottom of the economic spectrum. Native Americans also suffer disproportionately with lower life expectancies than most groups in the United States.
::然而,美洲原住民(其中一些人现在希望被称为美国印第安人,以避免“土著”一词的“保存”含义)仍受到几个世纪退化的影响。 长期贫困、教育不足、文化混乱和高失业率导致美洲原住民人口陷入经济底层。 美洲原住民的预期寿命也比美国大多数群体低得不成比例。SPORTS TEAMS WITH NATIVE AMERICAN NAMES
Many Native Americans (and others) believe sports teams with names like the Indians, Braves, and Warriors perpetuate unwelcome stereotypes. (Photo (a) courtesy of public domain/Wikimedia Commons; Photo (b) courtesy of Chris Brown/flickr)
::许多土著美国人(和其他人)认为体育队的名字有印第安人、勇士和勇士等。 (Photo (a) 受公共领域/维基媒体公域的驱使;照片 (b) 受克里斯·布朗/弗利克尔的驱使)The sports world abounds with team names like the Indians, the Warriors, the Braves, and even the Savages and Redskins. These names arise from historically prejudiced views of Native Americans as fierce, brave, and strong savages: attributes that would be beneficial to a sports team, but are not necessarily beneficial to Americans who should be seen as more than just fierce savages.
::体育界的球队名称众多,如印第安人、勇士、勇士、勇士、甚至萨瓦吉人和红皮人。 这些名字源于历史上对美洲原住民的偏见,认为他们是凶猛、勇敢和强悍的野蛮人:这些特征将有益于体育队,但不一定对美国人有益,因为美国人不仅应该被视为凶猛的野蛮人。Since the civil rights movement of the 1960s, the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) has been campaigning against the use of such mascots, asserting that the “warrior savage myth . . . reinforces the racist view that Indians are uncivilized and uneducated and it has been used to justify policies of forced assimilation and destruction of Indian culture” (NCAI Resolution #TUL-05-087 2005). The campaign has met with only limited success. While some teams have changed their names, hundreds of professional, college, and K–12 school teams still have names derived from this stereotype. Another group, American Indian Cultural Support (AICS), is especially concerned with such names at K-12 schools, grades where children should be gaining a fuller and more realistic understanding of Native Americans than such stereotypes supply.
::自1960年代的民权运动以来,美洲印第安人全国大会(NCAI)一直在反对使用这些吉祥物,声称“战争野蛮神话 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......种族主义观点,即印第安人不文明,没有受过教育,它被用来为强迫同化和破坏印度文化的政策辩护(NCAI决议#TUL-05-087 2005 ) 。 这场运动只取得了有限的成功。 尽管一些团队改变了名称,但数百个专业、学院和K-12学校团队仍然有来自这种定型观念的名字。 另一个团体,美国印第安人文化支持组织(AICS)特别关心K-12学校的这种名称,在这些年级中,儿童应该比这种定型观念供给更全面、更现实地理解美洲原住民。What do you think about such names? Should they be allowed or banned? What argument would a symbolic interactionist make on this topic?
::你对这些名字有什么看法?是允许还是禁止这些名字?一个象征性的互动者会对此专题提出什么论点?White Ethnic Americans
::白裔美国人As we have seen, there is no minority group that fits easily in a category or that can be described simply. While sociologists believe that individual experiences can often be understood in light of their social characteristics (such as race, class, or gender), we must balance this perspective with awareness that no two individuals’ experiences are alike. Making generalizations can lead to stereotypes and prejudice. The same is true for white ethnic Americans, who come from diverse backgrounds and have had a great variety of experiences. In this section, we will focus on German, Irish, Italian, and Eastern European immigrants.
::正如我们所看到的那样,没有一个少数群体可以很容易地归入某个类别或可以简单描述。 尽管社会学家认为个人经历往往可以根据其社会特征(如种族、阶级或性别)来理解,但我们必须平衡这一视角,同时认识到任何两个个人的经历都不一样。 泛泛化可能导致陈规定型观念和偏见。 白人美国人也是如此,他们来自不同背景,有着丰富的经验。 在本节中,我们将关注德国、爱尔兰、意大利和东欧移民。Reasons for Immigration
::入境原因White ethnic Europeans formed the second and third great waves of immigration, from the early 19th century to the mid-20th century. They joined a newly minted United States that was primarily made up of white Protestants from England. While most immigrants came searching for a better life, their experiences were not all the same.
::从19世纪初到20世纪中叶,欧洲白人构成了第二波和第三波移民浪潮。 他们加入了由英国白人新教徒组成的新兴美国。 虽然大多数移民都来寻求更好的生活,但他们的经历并不完全一样。The first major influx of European immigrants came from Germany and Ireland, starting in the 1820s. Germans came both for economic opportunity and to escape political unrest and military conscription, especially after the Revolutions of 1848. Many German immigrants of this period were political refugees: liberals who wanted to escape from an oppressive government. They were well-off enough to make their way inland, and they formed heavily German enclaves in the Midwest that exist to this day.
::从1820年代开始,欧洲移民的首次大规模涌入来自德国和爱尔兰。 德国人既是为了经济机会,也是为了逃避政治动荡和征兵,特别是在1848年革命之后。 这一时期的许多德国移民都是政治难民:自由主义者想要逃离压迫性政府。 他们有足够的钱到内陆,在中西部形成了至今存在的大量德国飞地。The Irish immigrants of the same time period were not always as well off financially, especially after the Irish Potato Famine of 1845. Irish immigrants settled mainly in the cities of the East Coast, where they were employed as laborers and where they faced significant discrimination.
::同一期间的爱尔兰移民在经济上并不总是那么富裕,特别是在1845年爱尔兰马铃薯饥荒之后,爱尔兰移民主要定居在东海岸城市,在那里他们被雇用为劳工,并面临重大歧视。German and Irish immigration continued into the late 19th century and earlier 20th century, at which point the numbers for Southern and Eastern European immigrants started growing as well. Italians, mainly from the Southern part of the country, began arriving in large numbers in the 1890s. Eastern European immigrants—people from Russia, Poland, Bulgaria, and Austria-Hungary—started arriving around the same time. Many of these Eastern Europeans were peasants forced into a hardscrabble existence in their native lands; political unrest, land shortages, and crop failures drove them to seek better opportunities in the United States. The Eastern European immigration wave also included Jewish people escaping pogroms (anti-Jewish uprisings) of Eastern Europe and the Pale of Settlement in what was then Poland and Russia.
::19世纪末和20世纪初,德国和爱尔兰移民持续到19世纪末和20世纪初,当时南欧和东欧移民人数也开始增加,主要来自该国南部的意大利人开始在1890年代大量抵达。东欧移民——来自俄罗斯、波兰、保加利亚和奥地利-匈牙利的人——开始在同一时间抵达。这些东欧人中有许多是农民,被迫在自己的故土中僵硬地生活;政治动乱、土地短缺和作物歉收迫使他们在美国寻求更好的机会。东欧移民浪潮还包括逃离东欧的大屠杀(反犹太人起义)和当时波兰和俄罗斯的定居之地的犹太人。History of Intergroup Relations
::群体间关系历史In a broad sense, German immigrants were not victimized to the same degree as many of the other subordinate groups this section discusses. While they may not have been welcomed with open arms, they were able to settle in enclaves and establish roots. A notable exception to this was during the lead up to World War I and through World War II, when anti-German sentiment was virulent.
::从广义上讲,德国移民的受害程度与本节讨论的许多其他从属群体不同,虽然他们可能没有受到开放的欢迎,但他们能够定居在飞地并扎根。 其中一个显著的例外是,在第一次世界大战之前和第二次世界大战期间,反德情绪是恶毒的。Irish immigrants, many of whom were very poor, were more of an underclass than the Germans. In Ireland, the English had oppressed the Irish for centuries, eradicating their language and culture and discriminating against their religion (Catholicism). Although the Irish had a larger population than the English, they were a subordinate group. This dynamic reached into the new world, where Anglo Americans saw Irish immigrants as a race apart: dirty, lacking ambition, and suitable for only the most menial jobs. In fact, Irish immigrants were subject to criticism identical to that with which the dominant group characterized African Americans. By necessity, Irish immigrants formed tight communities segregated from their Anglo neighbors.
::爱尔兰移民(其中许多人非常贫穷)比德国人更低等。 在爱尔兰,英国人压迫爱尔兰人达几个世纪之久,消灭了他们的语言和文化,并歧视他们的宗教(天主教 ) 。 虽然爱尔兰人比英语人口多,但他们是一个从属群体。 这种动态波及到新世界,英裔美国人将爱尔兰移民视为一个不同种族:肮脏、缺乏野心和只适合最卑劣的工作。 事实上,爱尔兰移民受到与占优势的美国人群体一样的批评。 必然,爱尔兰移民形成与英裔邻居隔离的紧张社区。The later wave of immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe was also subject to intense discrimination and prejudice. In particular, the dominant group—which now included second- and third-generation Germans and Irish—saw Italian immigrants as the dregs of Europe and worried about the purity of the American race (Myers 2007). Italian immigrants lived in segregated slums in Northeastern cities, and in some cases were even victims of violence and lynchings similar to what African Americans endured. They worked harder and were paid less than other workers, often doing the dangerous work that other laborers were reluctant to take on.
::后一波来自南欧和东欧的移民潮也受到了严重歧视和偏见。 特别是占支配地位的群体 — — 现在包括第二代和第三代德国人和爱尔兰人 — — 将意大利移民视为欧洲的潮流,担心美国种族的纯洁(Myers 2007 ) 。 意大利移民生活在东北城市隔离的贫民窟中,有时甚至成为暴力和私刑的受害者,这与非裔美国人所忍受的相似。 他们比其他工人更努力地工作,报酬也更低,常常从事其他工人不愿意承担的危险工作。Current Status
::目前现状现状The U.S. Census from 2008 shows that 16.5 percent of respondents reported being of German descent: the largest group in the country. For many years, German Americans endeavored to maintain a strong cultural identity, but they are now culturally assimilated into the dominant culture.
::2008年的美国人口普查显示,16.5%的受访者报告德国血统是德国最大的群体。 多年来,德裔美国人一直努力保持强大的文化认同,但如今他们在文化上被融入主流文化。There are now more Irish Americans in the United States than there are Irish in Ireland. One of the country’s largest cultural groups, Irish Americans have slowly achieved acceptance and assimilation into the dominant group.
::如今,美国的爱尔兰裔美国人比爱尔兰的爱尔兰人还多。 爱尔兰最大的文化群体之一,爱尔兰裔美国人已经慢慢地获得接受并融入主流群体。Myers (2007) states that Italian Americans’ cultural assimilation is “almost complete, but with remnants of ethnicity.” The presence of “Little Italy” neighborhoods—originally segregated slums where Italians congregated in the 19th century—exist today. While tourists flock to the saints’ festivals in Little Italies, most Italian Americans have moved to the suburbs at the same rate as other white groups.
::Myers(2007年)指出,意大利裔美国人的文化同化是 " 几乎完全的,但与种族残余相提并论。 ”意大利“小意大利”社区的存在 — — 19世纪意大利人聚居的最初隔离的贫民窟 — — 存在于今天 — — 存在。 虽然游客聚集在意大利小城的圣节,但大多数意大利裔美国人还是以与其他白人群体相同的速度搬到郊区。ARAB AMERICANS
::阿拉伯裔美国人
If ever a category was hard to define, the various groups lumped under the name “Arab American” is it. After all, Hispanic Americans or Asian Americans are so designated because of their counties of origin. But for Arab Americans, their country of origin—Arabia—has not existed for centuries. In addition, Arab Americans represent all religious practices, despite there being a stereotype of them as Islamic. As Myers (2007) asserts, not all Arabs are Muslim, and not all Muslims are Arab, complicating the stereotype of what it means to be an Arab American. Geographically, the Arab region comprises the Middle East and parts of northern Africa. People whose ancestry lies in that area or who speak primarily Arabic may consider themselves Arabs.
::如果一个类别很难界定,那么以“阿拉伯裔美国人”名义拼凑的各种群体就是它。毕竟,西班牙裔美国人或亚裔美国人由于其原籍地而被如此指定。但对于阿拉伯裔美国人来说,他们的原籍国阿拉伯裔国家已经几个世纪没有了。 此外,阿拉伯裔美国人代表着所有宗教习俗,尽管他们被定型为伊斯兰教。 正如迈尔斯(2007年)所说,并非所有阿拉伯人都是穆斯林,并非所有穆斯林都是阿拉伯人,这加剧了阿拉伯裔美国人的定型观念。从地理上讲,阿拉伯区域包括中东和北非部分地区。 在该地区有祖先或主要讲阿拉伯语的人可能认为自己是阿拉伯人。The U.S. Census has struggled with the issue of Arab identity. The 2010 Census, as in previous years, did not offer an “Arab” box to check under the question of race. Individuals who want to be counted as Arabs had to check the box for “Some other race” and then write in their race. However, when the Census data is tallied, they will be marked as white. This is problematic, however, denying Arab Americans opportunities for federal assistance.
::2010年的人口普查与往年一样,没有提供“阿拉伯”的“阿拉伯”方框来检查种族问题。 想要被算作阿拉伯人的个人必须检查“其他种族”的方框,然后在他们的种族中写上文字。 然而,当人口普查数据被统计出来时,他们就会被标为白色。 然而,这有问题,剥夺了美籍阿拉伯人获得联邦援助的机会。
Reasons for Immigration
The first Arab immigrants came to this country in the late 19th and early 20th century. They were predominantly Syrian, Lebanese, and Jordanian Christians, and they came to escape persecution and to make a better life. These early immigrants and their descendants, who were more likely to think of themselves as Syrian or Lebanese than Arab, represent almost half of the Arab American population today (Myers 2007). Restrictive immigration policies from the 1920s until 1965 curtailed all immigration, but Arab immigration since 1965 has been steady. Immigrants from this time period have been more likely to be Muslim and more highly educated, escaping political unrest and looking for better opportunities.
History of Intergroup RelationsRelations between Arab Americans and the dominant majority have been marked by mistrust, misinformation, and deeply entrenched beliefs. Helen Samhan of the Arab American Institute suggests that Arab-Israeli conflicts in the 1970s contributed significantly to cultural and political anti-Arab sentiment in the United States (2001). The United States has historically supported the State of Israel, while some Middle Eastern countries deny the existence of the Israeli state. Disputes over these issues have involved Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, and Palestine.
::阿拉伯美国人和占多数的美国人之间的关系一直充满不信任、错误信息以及根深蒂固的信仰。 阿拉伯美洲研究所的海伦·萨姆汉(Helen Samhan)指出,1970年代的阿拉伯-以色列冲突极大地助长了美国的文化和政治反阿拉伯情绪(2001年 ) 。 美国历来支持以色列国,而一些中东国家则否认以色列国的存在,埃及、叙利亚、伊拉克、约旦、黎巴嫩和巴勒斯坦也参与了关于这些问题的争端。As is often the case with stereotyping and prejudice, the actions of extremists come to define the entire group, regardless of the fact that most U.S. citizens with ties to the Middle Eastern community condemn terrorist actions, as do most inhabitants of the Middle East. Would it be fair to judge all Catholics by the events of the Inquisition? Of course, the United States was deeply affected by the events of September 11, 2001. This event has left a deep scar on the American psyche, and it has fortified anti-Arab sentiment for a large percentage of Americans. In the first month after 9/11, hundreds of hate crimes were perpetrated against people who looked like they might be of Arab descent.
::与陈规定型和偏见经常发生的情况一样,极端主义分子的行动开始给整个群体下定义,而不管大多数与中东社会有联系的美国公民谴责恐怖主义行动,中东大多数居民也是如此。 由宗教裁判所事件来评判所有天主教徒是否公平? 当然,美国深受2001年9月11日事件的影响。 这一事件给美国心灵留下了深刻的伤疤,并且强化了很大一部分美国人的反阿拉伯情绪。 9/11之后的第一个月,几百起仇恨罪针对看起来像阿拉伯血统的人。
The proposed Park51 Muslim Community Center generated heated controversy due to its close proximity to Ground Zero. In these photos, people march in protest against the center, while counter-protesters demonstrate their support. (Photos (a) and (b) courtesy of David Shankbone/Wikimedia Commons)
::拟议的Park51穆斯林社区中心(Park51 Muslim Communication Center Center)引起了激烈的争议,因为它离零号地很近。 在这些照片中,人们游行抗议中心,反抗议者则表示支持中心。 (Photos (a) 和 (b) 由David Shankbone/维基媒体共同公司提供。 )
Current Status
::目前现状现状Although the rate of hate crimes against Arab Americans has slowed, Arab Americans are still victims of racism and prejudice. Racial profiling has proceeded against Arab Americans as a matter of course since 9/11. Particularly when engaged in air travel, being young and Arab-looking is enough to warrant a special search or detainment. This Islamophobia (irrational fear of or hatred against Muslims) does not show signs of abating. Scholars noted that white domestic terrorists like Timothy McVeigh, who detonated a bomb at an Oklahoma courthouse in 1995, have not inspired similar racial profiling or hate crimes against whites.
::尽管对阿拉伯裔美国人的仇恨犯罪速度有所减缓,但阿拉伯裔美国人仍然是种族主义和偏见的受害者。 自9/11事件以来,针对阿拉伯裔美国人的种族貌相当然一直在发生。 特别是当从事空中旅行时,年轻和阿拉伯长相足以引起特别搜索或拘留。 这种仇视伊斯兰(对穆斯林的有理性恐惧或仇恨)并不显示出减少的迹象。 学者们指出,像Timothy McVeigh这样的国内白人恐怖分子1995年在俄克拉何马州法院引爆炸弹,并没有引发类似的针对白人的种族貌相或仇恨犯罪。
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The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced the relocation of any native tribes east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river.