章节大纲

  • 常规

    全部折叠 展开全部

  • 年龄和残疾

    Objectives
    ::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标

    Analyze the effects the aging of the population is having on the American society?
    ::分析人口老龄化对美国社会的影响?

    Explain how the aging of the population is affecting the life opportunities of older people in the United States.
    ::解释人口老龄化如何影响美国老年人的生活机会。


    Universal Generalizations
    ::普遍化

    Different societies place different values on age.
    ::不同的社会将不同的价值观放在年龄上。

    In preindustrial societies, age has a significant role in the social standing of an individual.
    ::在工业前社会,年龄对个人的社会地位具有重要作用。

    The world’s population is aging.
    ::世界人口正在老龄化。

    In American society, the media reinforces ageism.
    ::在美国社会,媒体强化了年龄歧视。


    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    How does ageism influence attitudes in American society?
    ::年龄主义如何影响美国社会的态度?

    How do stereotypes about older Americans contribute to ageism?
    ::有关美国老年人的定型观念如何助长老龄歧视?

    How do governmental policies towards the aging affect the elderly in the United States?
    ::政府针对老龄化的政策如何影响美国老年人?

    How is the “graying of America” affecting our society?
    ::" 掠夺美国 " 如何影响我们的社会?

    What issues do Americans with disabilities face?
    ::残疾美国人面临哪些问题?

    Have laws eliminated discrimination against people with disabilities?
    ::法律是否消除了对残疾人的歧视?

     

    AGE AND AGEISM
    ::年龄和年龄

    Five sets of road signs, the top one green and the bottom one red in each set, are shown along the right-hand side of a road in a desert setting. The green signs all read “Senior Center” and feature an arrow pointing left. The blue signs, from front to back, read “Don’t Forget,” “Remember to [u]Turn![/u]”, “Wake Up!”, “Lunch Only $4,” and “Turn Now.”

    Are these street signs humorous or offensive? What shared assumptions make them humorous? Or is memory loss too serious to be made fun of? (Photo courtesy of Tumbleweed/flickr)
    ::这些街道标志是幽默的还是冒犯性的?是什么共同的假设使它们幽默?还是记忆丧失太严重了,不能被取笑? (Tumbleweed/flickr的贴文)


    Changes that have been occurring in this nation are also affecting its older citizens. For example, the numbers of older Americans are growing rapidly, with important repercussions for economic and social life. Somewhat like the San, we appreciate our elderly but also consider them something of a burden. We also hold some unfortunate stereotypes of them and seemingly view old age as something to be shunned. Television commercials and other advertisements extol the virtues of staying young by “washing away the gray” and by removing all facial wrinkles. In our youth-obsessed culture, older people seem to be second-class citizens.
    ::这个国家所发生的变化也影响到其老年公民。 比如,美国老年人的数量正在迅速增长,对经济和社会生活产生了重要影响。 有些像桑人一样,我们欣赏我们的老年人,但也认为他们是一种负担。 我们还持有一些他们不幸的陈规定型观念,似乎认为老年是应该躲避的东西。 电视广告和其他广告赞美年轻人的美德,“洗去灰色”并消除面部皱纹。 在我们的年轻人文化中,老年人似乎是二等公民。

    Why study the elderly and the process of growing old? As just noted, understanding the elderly and the experience of aging will help us understand a society. An additional reason might be even more convincing:  you will be old someday . At least you will be old if you do not die prematurely from an accident, cancer, a heart attack, some other medical problem, murder, or suicide. Although we do not often think about aging when we are in our late teens and early 20s, one of our major goals in life is to become old. That is partly why many people wear seat belts, watch their diets, and exercise. By studying age and aging and becoming familiar with some of the problems facing the elderly now and in the future, we are really studying something about ourselves and a stage in the life course we all hope to reach.
    ::为什么要研究老人和老老老的过程?正如刚才指出的,了解老人和老化的经验将有助于我们理解一个社会。另一个原因也许更令人信服:你将来会变老。至少,如果你不过早死于事故、癌症、心脏病、其他医疗问题、谋杀或自杀,你就会老。虽然我们常常不考虑在我们十几岁和二十几岁时的老龄化问题,但我们生活中的主要目标之一是变老。这就是为什么许多人都系安全带,看他们的饮食和锻炼。通过学习年龄、老龄化和熟悉老年人现在和将来所面临的一些问题,我们确实正在研究我们自己和我们所有人都希望达到的生活过程的舞台。

    Because we all want to live into old age, the study of age and aging helps us understand something about ourselves and a stage in the life course we all hope to reach.
    ::因为我们所有人都想活到老年,对年龄和老龄化的研究有助于我们了解我们自己和我们都希望达到的人生过程的阶段。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商


    The study of aging is so important and popular that it has its own name, .  Social gerontology  is the study of the social aspects of aging (Hooyman & Kiyak, 2011). Hooyman, N. R., & Kiyak, H. A. (2011).  Social gerontology: A multidisciplinary perspective  (9th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. The scholars who study aging are called  gerontologists . The people they study go by several names, most commonly “older people,” “elders,” and “the elderly.” The latter term is usually reserved for those 65 or older, while “older people” and “elders” (as the headline of the opening news story illustrates) often include people in their 50s as well as those 60 or older.
    ::老龄化研究是如此重要和受欢迎,以至于它有自己的名字,即:社会老年学是老龄化的社会方面的研究(Hoyman & Kiyak,2011年)。Hooyman,N.R. & Kiyak,H.A.(2011)。社会老年学:多学科观点(第9版),上萨德尔河,NJ:皮尔逊。研究老龄化的学者被称为老年学家。他们研究的人有几个名字,最常见的是“老年人 ” , “老年人 ” 和“老年人 ” 。 后一个术语通常保留给65岁或65岁以上的人,而“老年人”和“老年人”(作为开篇新闻报道的标题)通常包括50岁和60岁以上的人。

    Gerontologists say that age and aging have at least four dimensions. The dimension most of us think of is  , defined as the number of years since someone was born. A second dimension is , which refers to the physical changes that “slow us down” as we get into our middle and older years. For example, our arteries might clog up, or problems with our lungs might make it more difficult for us to breathe. A third dimension, , refers to the psychological changes, including those involving mental functioning and personality, that occur as we age. Gerontologists emphasize that chronological age is not always the same thing as biological or psychological age. Some people who are 65, for example, can look and act much younger than some who are 50.
    ::老年学家说,年龄和老龄化至少有四个维度。我们大多数人认为的维度是 — — 被定义为某人出生后的年数。第二个维度是 — — 指的是我们进入中年和老年时“放慢我们的速度 ” 。 比如,我们的动脉可能堵塞,或者肺部的问题可能使我们更难呼吸。第三个维度是心理变化,包括我们年龄时发生的心理功能和个性变化。老年学家强调,时间年龄并不总是与生物或心理年龄相同。例如,65岁的人比50岁的人看起来和行为都年轻得多。

    The fourth dimension of aging is social.   refers to changes in a person’s roles and relationships, both within their networks of relatives and friends and in formal organizations such as the workplace and houses of worship. Although social aging can differ from one individual to another, it is also profoundly influenced by the  perception  of aging that is part of a society’s culture. If a society views aging positively, the social aging experienced by individuals in that society will be more positive and enjoyable than in a society that views aging negatively. Let’s look at the perception of aging in more detail.
    ::老龄化的第四个方面是社会层面。 是指一个人的角色和关系的变化,无论是在其亲属和朋友的网络中,还是在正式的组织,如工作场所和礼拜场所中。 尽管社会老龄化可能因人而异,但它也受到老龄化观念的深刻影响,而老龄化是社会文化的一部分。 如果社会对老龄化持积极看法,那么个人在社会中经历的社会老龄化将比对老龄化持否定态度的社会更加积极和令人愉快。 让我们更详细地审视老龄化的观念。

     

     

    Aging in Society
    ::社会老龄化

    Think of American movies and television shows you have watched recently. Did any of them feature older actors and actresses? What roles did they play? How were these older actors portrayed? Were they cast as main characters in a love story? Grouchy old people?
    ::想想你最近所看过的美国电影和电视节目。其中有谁特别介绍老演员和女演员吗?他们扮演什么角色?这些老演员是如何描绘的?他们是否在爱情故事中扮演主要角色?

    Many media portrayals of the elderly reflect negative cultural attitudes toward aging. In the United States, society tends to glorify youth, associating it with beauty and sexuality. In comedies, the elderly are often associated with grumpiness or hostility. Rarely do the roles of older people convey the fullness of life experienced by seniors—as employees, lovers, or the myriad roles they have in real life. What values does this reflect?
    ::许多媒体对老年人的描述反映了对老龄化的负面文化态度。 在美国,社会倾向于美化青年,把青年与美貌和性联系起来。 在喜剧中,老年人往往与安逸或敌意联系在一起。 老年人的角色很少能传达老年人作为雇员、情人或他们在现实生活中的各种角色所经历的生活的完整。 这反映了什么价值观?

    One hindrance to society’s fuller understanding of aging is that people rarely understand the process of aging until they reach old age themselves. (As opposed to childhood, for instance, which we can all look back on.) Therefore, myths and assumptions about the elderly and aging are common. Many stereotypes exist surrounding the realities of being an older adult. While individuals often encounter stereotypes associated with race and gender and are thus more likely to think critically about them, many people accept age stereotypes without question (Levy 2002). Each culture has a certain set of expectations and assumptions about aging, all of which are part of our socialization.
    ::社会更充分地理解老龄化问题的一个障碍是人们很少理解老龄化的过程,直到他们自己进入老年。 (例如,我们都可以回头看,反童年。 )因此,关于老年人和老龄化的神话和假设是司空见惯的。 围绕老年人的现实存在许多定型观念。 尽管个人经常遇到与种族和性别有关的定型观念,因此更有可能批判他们,但许多人接受年龄定型观念,而不会有任何疑问(Levy 2002 ) 。 每一种文化都有关于老龄化的一套期望和假设,所有这些都是我们社会化的一部分。

    While the landmarks of maturing into adulthood are a source of pride, signs of natural aging can be cause for shame or embarrassment. Some people try to fight off the appearance of aging with cosmetic surgery. Although many seniors report that their lives are more satisfying than ever, and their self-esteem is stronger than when they were young, they are still subject to cultural attitudes that make them feel invisible and devalued.
    ::尽管成熟成人的里程碑是引以为傲的,但自然老龄化的征兆可能会导致羞耻或尴尬。 有些人试图用整形手术来消除老龄化的外表。 尽管许多老年人报告说,他们的生活比以往更满意,他们的自尊比年轻时更强大,但他们仍然受到文化态度的影响,这种态度使他们感到隐形和被贬低。

    Gerontology  is a field of science that seeks to understand the process of aging and the challenges encountered as seniors grow older. Gerontologists investigate age, aging, and the aged. Gerontologists study what it is like to be an older adult in a society and the ways that aging affects members of a society. As a multidisciplinary field, gerontology includes the work of medical and biological scientists, social scientists, and even financial and economic scholars.
    ::老年学是一个科学领域,它寻求了解老龄化过程和老年人长大后遇到的挑战。老年学家调查年龄、老龄化和老年人。老年学家研究社会中老年人的感受以及老龄化对社会成员的影响。作为一个多学科领域,老年学包括医学和生物学家、社会科学家,甚至金融和经济学者的工作。

    Social gerontology  refers to a specialized field of gerontology that examines the social (and sociological) aspects of aging. Researchers focus on developing a broad understanding of the experiences of people at specific ages, such as mental and physical wellbeing, plus age-specific concerns such as the process of dying. Social gerontologists work as social researchers, counselors, community organizers, and service providers for older adults. Because of their specialization, social gerontologists are in a strong position to advocate for older adults.
    ::社会老年学是指一个研究老龄化的社会(和社会学)方面的老年学专门领域,研究人员注重广泛了解特定年龄的人的经历,例如身心健康,以及诸如死亡过程等特定年龄的问题;社会老年学工作者作为社会研究人员、顾问、社区组织者以及为老年人提供服务者开展工作;由于其专业化,社会老年学学家具有为老年人辩护的强大地位。

    Scholars in these disciplines have learned that “aging” reflects not just the physiological process of growing older, but also our attitudes and beliefs about the aging process. You’ve likely seen online calculators that promise to determine your “real age” as opposed to your chronological age. These ads target the notion that people may “feel” a different age than their actual years. Some 60-year-olds feel frail and elderly, while some 80-year-olds feel sprightly.
    ::这些学科的学者们已经认识到,“老龄化”不仅反映了老龄化的生理过程,也反映了我们对老龄化过程的态度和信仰。 你可能已经看到了在线计算器,这些计算器承诺确定你的“实际年龄 ” , 而不是你的时间年龄。 这些广告针对的理念是人们可能“感觉”与实际年龄不同的年龄。 大约60岁的人感到虚弱和年老,而大约80岁的人则感到惊艳。

    Equally revealing is that as people grow older they define “old age” in terms of greater years than their current age (Logan 1992). Many people want to postpone old age, regarding it as a phase that will never arrive. Some older adults even succumb to stereotyping their own age group (Rothbaum 1983).
    ::同样令人瞩目的是,随着人们长大,他们用比目前年龄长的岁数来界定“老年”的定义(Logan 1992 ) 。 许多人希望推迟老年,认为这是永远不会到来的阶段。 一些老年人甚至屈从于对自己年龄组的陈规定型观念(Rothbaum 1983 ) 。

    In the United States, the experience of being elderly has changed greatly over the past century. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, many U.S. households were home to multigenerational families, and the experiences and wisdom of elders was respected. They offered wisdom and support to their children and often helped raise their grandchildren (Sweetser 1984).
    ::在美国,老年人的经历在过去一个世纪里发生了巨大变化。 在1800年代末和1900年代初,许多美国家庭拥有多代家庭,老年人的经验和智慧受到尊重,他们为子女提供了智慧和支持,并经常帮助抚养孙子(Sweetsel 1984年)。

    But in today’s society, with most households confined to the nuclear family, attitudes toward the elderly have changed. In 2000, the U.S. Census Bureau reported that, of the 105.5 million households in the country, only about 4 million of them (3.7 percent) were multigenerational (U.S. Census Bureau 2001). It is no longer typical for older relatives to live with their children and grandchildren.
    ::但在当今社会中,大多数家庭都局限于核心家庭,对老年人的态度已经改变。 2000年,美国人口普查局报告,全国1.055亿户家庭中,只有大约400万户(3.7%)是多代家庭(美国人口普查局,2001年 ) 。 老年亲属与子女和孙子女生活在一起已经不再是典型的了。

    Attitudes toward the elderly have also been affected by large societal changes that have happened over the past 100 years. Researchers believe industrialization and modernization have contributed greatly to lowering the power, influence, and prestige the elderly once held.
    ::对老年人的态度也受到过去100年来发生的巨大社会变化的影响。 研究人员相信工业化和现代化极大地降低了老年人曾经拥有的权力、影响力和声望。

    The elderly have both benefitted and suffered from these rapid social changes. In modern societies, a strong economy created new levels of prosperity for many people. Health care has become more widely accessible and medicine has advanced, allowing the elderly to live longer. However, older people are not as essential to the economic survival of their families and communities as they were in the past.
    ::在现代社会中,强大的经济为许多人创造了新的繁荣水平,医疗保健更加普及,医学进步,使老年人能够长寿,但老年人与其过去相比,对家庭和社区的经济生存至关重要。


    Studying Aging Populations
    ::研究老龄人口


    An older woman with white hair and glasses is shown looking out a window, across a body of water.

    How old is this woman? In modern American society, appearance is not a reliable indicator of age. In addition to genetic differences, health habits, hair dyes, Botox, and the like make traditional signs of aging increasingly unreliable. (Photo courtesy of the Sean and Lauren Spectacular/flickr)
    ::这个女人多大年纪了?在现代的美国社会中,外表并不是一个可靠的年龄指标。 除了遗传差异、健康习惯、发染染、肉毒杆菌等外,传统的老龄化迹象越来越不可靠。 (Sean和Lauren Spectacel/Flickr的亲礼)


    Since its creation in 1790, the U.S. Census Bureau has been tracking age in the population. Age is an important factor to analyze with accompanying demographic figures, such as income and health. The population pyramid below shows projected age distribution patterns for the next several decades.
    ::自1790年成立以来,美国人口普查局一直在跟踪人口年龄,年龄是分析人口数字的重要因素,如收入和健康。 下面的人口金字塔显示了未来几十年的预计年龄分布模式。


    A population pyramid depicting the U.S. age distribution of 2010, and projecting the age distribution o f the U.S. in the years 2030 and 2050.

    This population pyramid shows the age distribution pattern for 2010 and projected patterns for 2030 and 2050 (Graph courtesy of the U.S. Census Bureau)
    ::该人口金字塔显示了2010年的年龄分布模式以及2030年和2050年的预测模式(美国人口普查局提供的格子)


    Statisticians use data to calculate the median age of a population, that is, the number that marks the halfway point in a group’s age range. In the United States, the median age is about 40 (U.S. Census Bureau 2010). That means that about half of Americans are under 40 and about half are over 40. This median age has been increasing, indicating the population as a whole is growing older.
    ::统计学家使用数据来计算人口的中位年龄,即一个群体年龄范围中中点的中间点。 在美国,中位年龄约为40岁(美国人口普查局,2010年 ) 。 这意味着大约一半美国人不到40岁,一半美国人超过40岁。 这一中位年龄一直在增长,表明整个人口正在老化。

    A  cohort  is a group of people who share a statistical or demographic trait. People belonging to the same age cohort were born in the same time frame. Understanding a population’s age composition can point to certain social and cultural factors and help governments and societies plan for future social and economic challenges. The cohort below compares the age distribution of the United States as a whole to the indigenous population.
    ::一组人是一个具有统计或人口特征的群体,属于同一年龄组的人出生在同一个时间范围内,了解人口的年龄构成可以指向某些社会和文化因素,帮助政府和社会规划未来的社会和经济挑战。

    Sociological studies on aging might help explain the difference between Native American age cohorts and the general population. While Native American societies have a strong tradition of revering their elders, they also have a lower life expectancy because of lack of access to health care and high levels of mercury in fish, a traditional part of their diet.
     

    Phases of Aging: The Young-Old, Middle-Old, and Old-Old
    ::老龄化阶段:青年、中年和老年

    In the United States, all people over age 18 are considered adults, but there is a large difference between a person aged 21 and a person who is 45. More specific breakdowns, such as “young adult” and “middle-aged adult,” are helpful. In the same way, groupings are helpful in understanding the elderly. The elderly are often lumped together, grouping everyone over the age of 65. But a 65-year-old’s experience of life is much different than a 90-year-old’s.

    The United States’ older adult population can be divided into three life-stage subgroups: the young-old (approximately 65–74), the middle-old (ages 75–84), and the old-old (over age 85). Today’s young-old age group is generally happier, healthier, and financially better off than the young-old of previous generations. In the United States, people are better able to prepare for aging because resources are more widely available.
    ::美国的老年人口可以分为三个生命阶段的分组:年轻人(约65-74岁 ) 、 中年人(约75-84岁 ) 、 老年(超过85岁 ) 。 今天的年轻人比前几代年轻人更幸福、更健康,经济上也更好。 在美国,人们更有能力为老龄化做准备,因为资源更加普及。

    Also, many people are making proactive quality-of-life decisions about their old age while they are still young. In the past, family members made care decisions when an elderly person reached a health crisis, often leaving the elderly person with little choice about what would happen. The elderly are now able to choose housing, for example, that allows them some independence while still providing care when it is needed. Living wills, retirement planning, and medical power of attorney are other concerns that are increasingly handled in advance.
    ::此外,许多人在年老时对年老做出积极的生活质量决定;过去,当老年人遇到健康危机时,家庭成员做出照顾决定,往往让老年人对未来发生的情况没有多少选择;例如,老年人现在能够选择住房,允许他们独立,同时在需要时仍然提供照料;生活意愿、退休计划和医疗委托书是人们日益关注的其他问题,而事先处理的也越来越多。


    The Graying of the United States
    ::美国的灰色

    A tall man with white hair and moustache and glasses in casual business attire is shown flanked by two elderly women on his right and two elderly men on his left. The elderly people are all wearing blue T-shirts reading “Keep Social Security Strong: A A R P.” A banner in the background can also be seen, reading “Social Security Benefits America.”

    As senior citizens make up a larger percentage of the United States, the organizations supporting them grow stronger. (Photo courtesy of Congressman George Miller/flickr)
    ::由于老年公民在美国所占比例较大,支持他们的组织也越来越强大。 (乔治·米勒议员/弗利克议员的Photo礼仪)


    What does it mean to be elderly? Some define it as an issue of physical health, while others simply define it by chronological age. The U.S. government, for example, typically classifies people aged 65 years old as elderly, at which point citizens are eligible for federal benefits such as Social Security and Medicare. The World Health Organization has no standard, other than noting that 65 years old is the commonly accepted definition in most core nations, but it suggests a cut-off somewhere between 50 and 55 years old for semi-peripheral nations, such as those in Africa (World Health Organization 2012). AARP (formerly the American Association of Retired Persons) cites 50 as the eligible age of membership. It is interesting to note AARP’s name change; by taking the word “retired” out of its name, the organization can broaden its base to any older Americans, not just retirees. This is especially important now that many people are working to age 70 and beyond.
    ::老年意味着什么? 一些人将它定义为一个身体健康问题,而另一些人则简单地按时间年龄来界定它。 比如,美国政府通常将65岁的人归类为老年人,公民有资格享受联邦福利,如社会保障和医疗保险。 世界卫生组织没有标准,除了指出65岁是大多数核心国家公认的定义外,没有标准,但是它建议半周边国家,如非洲国家(世界卫生组织,2012年)在50至55岁之间截断。 美国退休人员协会(前美国退休人员协会)将50岁作为符合条件的成员年龄。 值得注意的是,美国退休人员协会改名;用“退休”一词取代其名称,该组织可以将其基础扩大到任何美国老年人,而不仅仅是退休人员。 这一点现在尤为重要的是,许多人工作到70岁或70岁以上。

    There is an element of social construction, both local and global, in the way individuals and nations define who is elderly; that is, the shared meaning of the concept of elderly is created through interactions among people in society. This is exemplified by the truism that you are only as old as you feel.
    ::无论是地方还是全球,在个人和国家如何界定谁是老年人方面,都存在着社会建设的要素,即老年人概念的共同含义是通过社会上的人之间的相互作用产生的,这体现在你只有感觉的年纪那么大。

    Demographically, the U.S. population over age 65 increased from 3 million in 1900 to 33 million in 1994 (Hobbs 1994) and to 36.8 million in 2010 (U.S. Census Bureau 2011c). This is a greater than tenfold increase in the elderly population, compared to a mere tripling of both the total population and of the population under 65 (Hobbs 1994). This increase has been called “the graying of America,” a term that describes the phenomenon of a larger and larger percentage of the population getting older and older. There are several reasons why America is graying so rapidly. One of these is  life expectancy : the average number of years a person born today may expect to live. When reviewing Census Bureau statistics grouping the elderly by age, it is clear that in the United States, at least, we are living longer. Between 2000 and 2012, the number of elderly citizens between 90 and 94 increased by more than 30 percent, and the number of elderly citizens 95 to 99 increased by almost 30 percent. Finally, the number of  centenarians  (those 100 years or older) increased by 2,910: a mere 5.8 percent, but impressive nonetheless (Werner 2011).
    ::美国65岁以上人口从1900年的300万增长到1994年的3 300万(霍布斯,1994年)和2010年的3 680万(美国人口普查局,2011年c),老年人口增长了十倍以上,而总人口和65岁以下人口仅增长了三倍(霍布斯,1994年)。这一增长被称为“灰色的美国”,这个术语描述了较大和较大比例的老年和老年人口现象。美国之所以如此迅速灰色化,有几个原因。其中之一是预期寿命:今天出生的人的平均预期寿命:在审查普查局按年龄分类的老年人统计时,我们显然至少寿命更长。在2000年至2012年期间,90岁至94岁的老年人口增加了30%以上,95岁至99岁的老人口增加了近30%。最后,百岁老人口(100岁或以上)增加了2 910岁:只有5.8%,尽管如此令人印象深刻(2011年)。

    It is interesting to note that not all Americans age equally. Most glaring is the difference between men and women; as the graph below shows, women have longer life expectancies than men. In 2010, there were ninety 65-year-old men per one hundred 65-year-old women. However, there were only eighty 75-year-old men per one hundred 75-year-old women, and only sixty 85-year-old men per one hundred 85-year-old women. Nevertheless, as the graph shows, the sex ratio actually increased over time, indicating that men are closing the gap between their life spans and those of women (U.S. Census Bureau 2010).
    ::值得注意的是,并非所有美国人的年龄都相等,最明显的是男女之间的差别;如下图所示,妇女的预期寿命比男子长;2010年,每一百六十五十五岁妇女中有九十65岁的男子;然而,每一百七十五岁妇女中只有八十七十五岁的男子,每一百八百八十五岁妇女中只有六十八十五岁的男子;然而,如图所示,性别比实际上随着时间推移而增加,表明男子的寿命与妇女的寿命差距正在缩小(美国人口普查局,2010年)。

    A line graph depicting the narrowing percentage by which women outlive men, years 1990, 2000, and 2010.

    This U.S. Census graph shows that women live significantly longer than men. However, over the past two decades, men have narrowed the percentage by which women outlive them. (Graph courtesy of the U.S. Census Bureau)
    ::这份美国人口普查图表显示,妇女比男子寿命长得多,但在过去20年中,男子降低了妇女寿命超过男子的百分比。 (美国人口普查局提供的图示)

    Baby Boomers
    ::婴儿潮婴儿

    Of particular interest to gerontologists right now is the population of  baby boomers , the cohort born between 1946 and 1964 and just now reaching age 65. Coming of age in the 1960s and early 1970s, the baby boom generation was the first group of children and teenagers with their own spending power and therefore their own marketing power (Macunovich 2000). As this group has aged, it has redefined what it means to be young, middle aged, and, now, old. People in the boomer generation do not want to grow old the way their grandparents did; the result is a wide range of products designed to ward off the effects—or the signs—of aging. Previous generations of people over 65 were “old.” Baby boomers are in “later life” or “the third age” (Gilleard and Higgs 2007).
    ::目前,老年学家特别感兴趣的是婴儿潮人人口,即1946年至1964年出生的、目前刚到65岁的人群,婴儿潮一代是首组儿童和青少年,他们拥有自己的消费能力,因此也拥有自己的销售能力(Macunovich 2000年)。随着这个群体老化,它重新定义了年轻、中年和现在的老年人的含义。潮人一代不想像祖父母那样老化;结果是设计了各种产品,以抵御老龄化的影响——或征兆。65岁以上的一代人“老了 ” 。 婴儿潮人处于“晚年生活”或“第三年龄 ” ( Gillard和Higgs 2007年)。

    The baby boom generation is the cohort driving much of the dramatic increase in the over-65 population. The figure below shows a comparison of the U.S. population by age and gender between 2000 and 2010. The biggest bulge in the pyramid (representing the largest population group) moves up the pyramid over the course of the decade; in 2000, the largest population group was age 35 to 55. In 2010, that group was age 45 to 65, meaning the oldest baby boomers are just reaching the age at which the U.S. Census considers them elderly. In 2020, we can predict, the baby boom bulge will continue to rise up the pyramid, making the largest U.S. population group between 65 and 85 years old.
    ::婴儿潮一代是促使65岁以上人口大幅增长的组群。 下图显示了2000年至2010年间按年龄和性别分列的美国人口对比。 金字塔(代表最大的人口群体)最大的暴增在十年期间向金字塔上攀升;2000年,最大的人口群体为35至55岁。 2010年,该群体为45至65岁,这意味着最老的婴儿潮人口正接近美国人口普查认为他们年长的年龄。 2020年,我们可以预测,婴儿潮暴增将继续攀升金字塔,成为65至85岁最大的美国人口群体。

    A population pyramid depicting the U.S. population by age and sex, years 2000 and 2010.

    In this U.S. Census pyramid chart, the baby boom bulge was aged 35 to 55 in 2000. In 2010, they were aged 45 to 65. (Graph courtesy of the U.S. Census Bureau)
    ::在这份美国人口普查金字塔图中,2000年婴儿潮暴发年龄为35至55岁,2010年,他们年龄为45至65岁(来自美国人口普查局的格子)。


    This aging of the baby boom cohort has serious implications for our society. Health care is one of the areas most impacted by this trend. For years, hand-wringing has abounded about the additional burden the boomer cohort will place on Medicare, a government-funded program that provides health care services to people over 65. And indeed, the Congressional Budget Office’s 2008 long-term outlook report shows that Medicare spending is expected to increase from 3 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2009 to 8 percent of GDP in 2030, and to 15 percent in 2080 (Congressional Budget Office 2008).
    ::婴儿潮群的老龄化对我们的社会产生了严重的影响。 医疗保健是受这一趋势影响最大的领域之一。 多年来,人工损坏已经使潮流组群对Medicare(Medicare)的额外负担变得十分沉重,Medicare是一个由政府资助的方案,为65岁以上的人提供保健服务。 事实上,国会预算办公室2008年的长期展望报告显示,医疗保险支出预计将从2009年占国内生产总值(GDP)的3%增加到2030年的8%,到2080年将增加到15%(国会预算办公室,2008年)。

    Certainly, as boomers age, they will put increasing burdens on the entire U.S. health care system. A study from 2008 indicates that medical schools are not producing enough medical professionals who specialize in treating geriatric patients (Gerontological Society of America 2008). However, other studies indicate that aging boomers will bring economic growth to the health care industries, particularly in areas like pharmaceutical manufacturing and home health care services (Bierman 2011). Further, some argue that many of our medical advances of the past few decades are a result of boomers’ health requirements. Unlike the elderly of previous generations, boomers do not expect that turning 65 means their active lives are over. They are not willing to abandon work or leisure activities, but they may need more medical support to keep living vigorous lives. This desire of a large group of over-65-year-olds wanting to continue with a high activity level is driving innovation in the medical industry (Shaw).
    ::当然,随着潮民的老化,他们将给整个美国医疗体系带来越来越多的负担。 2008年的一项研究表明,医学院并没有生产出足够的专门治疗老年病人的医疗专业人员(美国地质学学会,2008年)。 但是,其他研究表明,老龄化的潮民将给医疗保健行业带来经济增长,特别是在医药制造和家庭保健服务等领域(比尔曼,2011年 ) 。 此外,一些人认为,我们过去几十年的许多医疗进步是潮民健康要求的结果。 与前几代老年人不同,潮民并不期望65岁就意味着他们的积极生活结束。 他们不愿放弃工作或休闲活动,但可能需要更多的医疗支持以维持活力生活。 大批65岁以上想要继续高水平活动的人群的这种愿望正在推动医疗行业的创新(肖夫 ) 。

    The economic impact of aging boomers is also an area of concern for many observers. Although the baby boom generation earned more than previous generations and enjoyed a higher standard of living, they also spent their money lavishly and did not adequately prepare for retirement. According to a 2008 report from the McKinsey Global Institute, approximately two-thirds of early boomer households have not accumulated enough savings to maintain their lifestyles. This will have a ripple effect on the economy as boomers work and spend less (Farrel et al. 2008).
    ::许多观察家也关注老龄化潮人的经济影响。 虽然婴儿潮一代比前几代人挣得更多,而且享有更高的生活水平,但他们也花了很多钱,没有为退休做好充分准备。 根据麦肯锡全球研究所2008年的一份报告,大约三分之二的早期潮人家庭没有积累足够的储蓄来维持自己的生活方式。 这将对经济产生连锁效应,因为潮人工作并支出较少(Farrel等人,2008年)。

    Just as some observers are concerned about the possibility of Medicare being overburdened, Social Security is considered to be at risk. Social Security is a government-run retirement program funded primarily through payroll taxes. With enough people paying into the program, there should be enough money for retirees to take out. But with the aging boomer cohort starting to receive Social Security benefits, and with fewer workers paying into the Social Security trust fund, economists warn that the system will collapse by the year 2037. A similar warning came in the 1980s; in response to recommendations from the Greenspan Commission, the retirement age (the age at which people could start receiving Social Security benefits) was raised from 62 to 67 and the payroll tax was increased. A similar hike in retirement age, perhaps to 70, is a possible solution to the current threat to Social Security (Reuteman 2010).
    ::正如一些观察家担心医疗保险可能负担过重一样,社会保障也被视为处于危险之中。社会保障是政府经营的退休计划,资金主要来自工资税。只要有足够的人缴纳养老金,就应该有足够的钱让退休人员退出计划。 但是,随着不断老化的繁荣人群开始领取社会保障福利,而向社会保障信托基金支付工资的工人也较少,经济学家警告说,到2037年,该制度将崩溃。 1980年代也出现了类似的警告;根据格林斯潘委员会的建议,退休年龄(人们可以开始领取社会保障福利的年龄)从62岁提高到67岁,工资税也提高了。 类似地提高退休年龄(也许达到70岁)是解决当前对社会保障的威胁(Reutman,2010年)的一个可能办法。


    Mistreatment and Abuse
    ::虐待和凌辱

    Mistreatment and abuse of the elderly is a major social problem. As expected, with the biology of aging, the elderly sometimes become physically frail. This frailty renders them dependent on others for care—sometimes for small needs like household tasks, and sometimes for assistance with basic functions like eating and toileting. Unlike a child, who also is dependent on another for care, an elder is an adult with a lifetime of experience, knowledge, and opinions—a more fully developed person. This makes the care providing situation more complex.
    ::虐待和凌辱老年人是一个重要的社会问题,正如人们所预料的那样,随着老龄化的生理,老年人有时身体虚弱,这种脆弱使他们依赖他人照顾——有时是小的需要,如家务,有时是诸如吃饭和上厕所等基本功能的援助;与同样依赖他人照顾的儿童不同,老人是成年人,一生都有经验、知识和见解,是更成熟的人,这使提供照顾的情况更加复杂。

    Elder abuse  describes when a caretaker intentionally deprives an older person of care or harms the person in their charge. Caregivers may be family members, relatives, friends, health professionals, or employees of senior housing or nursing care. The elderly may be subject to many different types of abuse.
    ::老年人虐待是指照料者故意剥夺老年人的照顾或伤害由其负责的人,照料者可以是家庭成员、亲属、朋友、保健专业人员或老年住房或护理人员的雇员,老年人可能遭受多种不同类型的虐待。

    In a 2009 study on the topic led by Dr. Ron Acierno, the team of researchers identified five major categories of elder abuse: 1) physical abuse, such as hitting or shaking, 2) sexual abuse including rape and coerced nudity, 3) psychological or emotional abuse, such as verbal harassment or humiliation, 4) neglect or failure to provide adequate care, and 5) financial abuse or exploitation (Acierno 2010).
    ::在Ron Acierno博士领导的2009年关于这一专题的研究中,研究人员小组查明了五大类虐待老年人行为伤心1) 身体虐待,如打打或摇晃;(2) 性虐待,包括强奸和强迫裸体;(3) 心理或情感虐待,如口头骚扰或侮辱;(4) 忽视或未能提供适当照料;(5) 经济虐待或剥削(Acierno,2010年)。

    The National Center on Elder Abuse (NCEA), a division of the U.S. Administration on Aging, also identifies abandonment and self-neglect as types of abuse. 
    ::老年人虐待问题国家中心(NCEA)是美国老龄问题管理局的一个司,它也把遗弃和自我忽视确定为虐待的类型。

    What is elder abuse?
    ::什么是虐待老人?

    Elder abuse includes physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse, exploitation, neglect, and abandonment. Perpetrators include children, other family members, and spouses—as well as staff at nursing homes, assisted living, and other facilities.
    ::虐待老年人包括身体虐待、精神虐待、性虐待、性剥削、忽视和遗弃,肇事者包括儿童、其他家庭成员和配偶以及疗养院工作人员、辅助生活和其他设施。

    • Physical abuse  means inflicting physical pain or injury upon an older adult.
      ::身体虐待是指对老年人造成身体疼痛或伤害。
    • Sexual abuse  means touching, fondling, intercourse, or any other sexual activity with an older adult, when the older adult is unable to understand, unwilling to consent, threatened, or physically forced.
      ::性虐待是指在老年人无法理解、不愿同意、威胁或身体强迫的情况下,与老年人接触、抚摸、性交或任何其他性活动。
    • Emotional abuse  means verbal assaults, threats of abuse, harassment, or intimidation.
      ::情感虐待系指口头攻击、虐待威胁、骚扰或恐吓。
    • Confinement  means restraining or isolating an older adult, other than for medical reasons.
      ::除医疗原因外,监禁是指限制或孤立老年人。
    • Passive neglect  is a caregiver’s failure to provide an older adult with life’s necessities, including, but not limited to, food, clothing, shelter, or medical care.
      ::被动忽视是照顾者未能为老年人提供生活必需品,包括但不限于食物、衣着、住所或医疗保健。
    • Willful deprivation  means denying an older adult medication, medical care, shelter, food, a therapeutic device, or other physical assistance, and exposing that person to the risk of physical, mental, or emotional harm—except when the older, competent adult has expressed a desire to go without such care.
      ::故意剥夺是指拒绝向老年人提供药物、医疗、住所、食物、治疗装置或其他物质援助,使该人面临身体、精神或精神伤害的风险——但老年人、有能力的成年人表示希望不接受这种照顾的情况除外。
    • Financial exploitation  means the misuse or withholding of an older adult’s resources by another.     
      ::经济剥削是指另一人滥用或扣押老年人的资源。
    • How prevalent is elder abuse? Two recent U.S. studies found that roughly 1 in 10 elderly people surveyed had suffered at least one form of elder abuse. Some social researchers believe elder abuse is underreported and that the number may be higher. The risk of abuse also increases in people with health issues such as dementia (Kohn and Verhoek-Oftedahl 2011). Older women were found to be victims of verbal abuse more often than their male counterparts.

      ::虐待老年人有多普遍?最近美国的两项研究发现,被调查的10个老年人中约有1个至少遭受过一种形式的虐待。一些社会研究人员认为,虐待老年人的报告不足,而且人数可能更高。患有痴呆症等健康问题的人受到虐待的风险也有所增加(Kohn和Verhoek-Ointedahl,2011年)。老年妇女比男性更经常地成为语言虐待的受害者。
    • In Acierno’s study, which included a sample of 5,777 respondents age 60 and older, 5.2 percent of respondents reported financial abuse, 5.1 percent said they’d been neglected, and 4.6 endured emotional abuse (Acierno 2010). The prevalence of physical and sexual abuse was lower at 1.6 and 0.6 percent, respectively (Acierno 2010).

      ::在阿西耶诺(Acierno,2010年)的研究中,有5 777名60岁及以上受访者的抽样调查,5.2%的受访者报告了财务虐待,5.1%的受访者说他们被忽视,4.6%的人遭受了精神虐待(Acierno,2010年)。 身体和性虐待的发生率分别低至1.6%和0.6%(Acierno,2010年)。
    • Other studies have focused on the caregivers to the elderly in an attempt to discover the causes of elder abuse. Researchers identified factors that increased the likelihood of caregivers perpetrating abuse against those in their care. Those factors include inexperience, having other demands such as jobs (for those who weren’t professionally employed as caregivers), caring for children, living full time with the dependent elder, and experiencing high stress, isolation, and lack of support (Kohn and Verhoek-Oftedahl 2011).

      ::其他研究侧重于老年人的照料者,以找出虐待老年人的原因,研究人员查明了增加照料者虐待受照料者的可能性的因素,其中包括缺乏经验,有其他需求,如工作(那些没有作为照料者从事专业工作的人)、照料儿童、与受抚养老年人全职生活、承受高度压力、与世隔绝和缺乏支持(Kohn和Verhoek-Ointedahl,2011年)。
    • A history of depression in the caregiver was also found to increase the likelihood of elder abuse. Neglect was more likely when care was provided by paid caregivers. Many of the caregivers who physically abused elders were themselves abused—in many cases, when they were children. Family members with some sort of dependency on the elder in their care were more likely to physically abuse that elder. For example, an adult child caring for an elderly parent while, at the same time, depending on some form of income from that parent, would be considered more likely to perpetrate physical abuse (Kohn and Verhoek-Oftedahl 2011).

      ::照料者患有抑郁症的历史也增加了虐待老年人的可能性,在有偿照料者提供照料时,忽视的可能性更大,许多遭受身体虐待的照料者本身也遭到虐待,在许多情况下,当他们还是儿童时,许多遭受身体虐待的照料者本身也遭到虐待,对照料者中老年人有某种依赖的家庭成员更有可能对老年人进行身体虐待,例如,照料年长父母的成年儿童,同时,根据父母的某种收入形式,被认为更可能实施身体虐待(Kohn和Verhoek-Ostedahl,2011年)。
    WORLD WAR II VETERANS
    ::第二次世界大战

    A group of elderly men, many in wheelchairs, all dressed in blue shirts and baseball caps, are shown standing and sitting in a memorial setting, with a fountain and pillars behind them.

    World War II (1941–1945) veterans and members of an Honor Flight from Milwaukee, Wisconsin, visit the National World War II Memorial in Washington, D.C. Most of these men and women were in their late teens or 20s when they served. (Photo courtesy of Sean Hackbarth/flickr)
    ::第二次世界大战(1941-1945年)退伍军人和威斯康星州密尔瓦基的荣誉航班成员参观了华盛顿特区的第二次世界大战国家纪念馆。 其中大多数男女在服役时都处于晚年或20岁。 (Sean Hackbarth/flickr致谢)

    World War II veterans are aging. Many are in their 80s and 90s. They are dying at an estimated rate of about 740 per day, according to the U.S. Veterans Administration (National Center for Veterans Analysis and Statistics 2011). Data suggest that by 2036, there will be no living veterans of WWII (U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs).
    ::据美国退伍军人管理局(美国退伍军人分析和统计国家中心,2011年)统计,二战老兵正在老龄化,许多老兵年龄在80岁和90岁,估计每天死亡约740人。 数据显示,到2036年,二战老兵(美国退伍军人事务部)将不再有活生生的老兵。

    When these veterans came home from the war and ended their service, little was known about posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). These heroes did not receive the mental and physical health care that could have helped them. As a result, many of them, now in old age, are dealing with the effects of PTSD. Research suggests a high percentage of World War II veterans are plagued by flashback memories and isolation, and that many “self-medicate” with alcohol.
    ::当这些退伍军人从战争中回家并结束服役时,对创伤后应激障碍(PTSD)知之甚少。 这些英雄没有得到本可以帮助他们的心理和生理保健。 结果,他们中的许多人,现在年纪大了,正在面对创伤后应激障碍的影响。 研究表明,第二次世界大战的退伍军人中有很大一部分被记忆回落和孤立所困扰,许多“自我治疗”的是酒精。

    Research has found that veterans of any conflict are more than twice as likely as non-veterans to commit suicide, with rates highest among the oldest veterans. Reports show that WWII-era veterans are four times as likely to take their own lives as people of the same age with no military service (Glantz 2010).
    ::研究发现,任何冲突中的退伍军人自杀的可能性都比非退伍军人高一倍以上,年龄最大的退伍军人自杀率最高,报告显示,二战时代的退伍军人自杀率是同龄人自杀率的四倍(Glantz,2010年)。

    In May 2004, the National World War II Memorial in Washington, D.C., was completed and dedicated to honor those who served during the conflict. Dr. Earl Morse, a physician and retired Air Force captain, treated many WWII veterans. He encouraged them to visit the memorial, knowing it could help them heal. Many WWII veterans expressed interest in seeing the memorial. Unfortunately, many were in their 80s and were neither physically nor financially able to travel on their own. Dr. Morse arranged to personally escort some of the veterans and enlisted volunteer pilots who would pay for the flights themselves. He also raised money, insisting the veterans pay nothing. By the end of 2005, 137 veterans, many in wheelchairs, had made the trip. The Honor Flight Network was up and running.
    ::2004年5月,在华盛顿哥伦比亚特区,全国第二次世界大战纪念馆竣工,致力于纪念在冲突期间服务的人员;Earl Morse博士,医生和退役空军上尉,治疗许多二战退伍军人;他鼓励他们参观纪念馆,知道它能帮助他们康复;许多二战退伍军人表示有兴趣参观纪念碑;不幸的是,许多人已满80岁,既无体力也无财力独自旅行;Morse博士安排亲自护送一些将自己支付航班费用的退伍军人和志愿飞行员;他还筹集资金,要求退伍军人不付任何费用;到2005年底,137名退伍军人(其中许多是轮椅兵)出行旅行;荣誉飞行网络成立并运行。

    As of 2010, the Honor Flight Network had flown more than 120,000 U.S. veterans of World War II, and some veterans of the Korean War, to Washington. The round-trip flights leave for day-long trips from airports in 30 states, staffed by volunteers who care for the needs of the elderly travelers (Honor Flight Network 2011).
    ::截至2010年,荣誉飞行网络(Honor Flight Network)已经将超过120,000名美国二战老兵和朝鲜战争老兵搭载到华盛顿。 从30个州的机场出发的往返航班从机场起飞,由照顾老年旅行者需要的志愿者组成(Honor Flight Network 2011 ) 。

    y 
    ::y y , y


    Aging around the World
    ::环环世界的老龄化

    A shirtless elderly man is shown manipulating a large tree branch while standing waist-deep in a river.

    Cultural values and attitudes can shape people’s experience of aging. (Photo courtesy of Tom Coppen/flickr)
    ::文化价值观和态度可以影响人们的老龄化经历。 (Tom Coppen/Flickr的Photo礼节)


    From 1950 to approximately 2010, the global population of individuals age 65 and older increased by a range of 5–7 percent (Lee 2009). This percentage is expected to increase and will have a huge impact on the  dependency ratio : the number of non-productive citizens (young, disabled, elderly) to productive working citizens (Bartram and Roe 2005). One country that will soon face a serious aging crisis is China, which is on the cusp of an “aging boom”: a period when its elderly population will dramatically increase. The number of people above age 60 in China today is about 178 million, which amounts to 13.3 percent of its total population (Xuequan 2011). By 2050, nearly a third of the Chinese population will be age 60 or older, putting a significant burden on the labor force and impacting China’s economic growth (Bannister, Bloom, and Rosenberg 2010).
    ::从1950年到2010年左右,全球65岁及65岁以上人口人口增长了5-7%(利比,2009年 ) 。 这一百分比预计将增长,并将对受抚养人口比例产生巨大影响:非生产性公民(年轻、残疾、老年)与生产性劳动公民(巴特拉姆和罗埃2005年 ) 。 一个即将面临严重老龄化危机的国家是中国,中国正处于“老龄化繁荣”的边缘:一个老年人口将急剧增长的时期。 如今,中国60岁以上人口数量约为1.78亿,占总人口的13.3%(2011年苏夸恩州 ) 。 到2050年,近三分之一的中国人口将达到60岁或60岁以上,这给劳动力带来沉重负担,并影响中国的经济增长(班尼斯特、布鲁特和罗森伯格(2010年 ) ) 。

    As health care improves and life expectancy increases across the world, elder care will be an emerging issue. Wienclaw (2009) suggests that with fewer working-age citizens available to provide home care and long-term assisted care to the elderly, the costs of elder care will increase.
    ::随着全世界医疗保健的改善和预期寿命的提高,老年人护理将是一个新出现的问题。 Wienclaw(2009年)指出,随着提供家庭护理和长期协助老年人护理的劳动适龄公民人数减少,老年人护理费用将增加。

    Worldwide, the expectation governing the amount and type of elder care varies from culture to culture. For example, in Asia the responsibility for elder care lies firmly on the family (Yap, Thang, and Traphagan 2005). This is different from the approach in most Western countries, where the elderly are considered independent and are expected to tend to their own care. It is not uncommon for family members to intervene only if the elderly relative requires assistance, often due to poor health. Even then, caring for the elderly is considered voluntary. In the United States, decisions to care for an elderly relative are often conditionally based on the promise of future returns, such as inheritance or, in some cases, the amount of support the elderly provided to the caregiver in the past (Hashimoto 1996).
    ::在世界范围内,关于老年人护理的数量和类型的期望因文化和文化而异,例如,在亚洲,老年人护理的责任完全在于家庭(Yap、Thang和Traphagan,2005年)。这与大多数西方国家的做法不同,这些国家认为老年人是独立的,需要自己照顾;家庭成员只有在老年人亲属需要帮助,而且往往由于健康状况不佳而需要帮助的情况下才进行干预,这并非罕见。即使如此,照顾老年人也被认为是自愿的。在美国,照顾老年人亲属的决定往往以未来返回的希望为条件,例如继承,或者在某些情况下,过去向照顾者提供多少支助(Hashimoto,1996年)。

    These differences are based on cultural attitudes toward aging. In China, several studies have noted the attitude of  filial piety (deference and respect to one’s parents and ancestors in all things)as defining all other virtues (Hsu 1971; Hamilton 1990). Cultural attitudes in Japan prior to approximately 1986 supported the idea that the elderly deserve assistance (Ogawa and Retherford 1993). However, seismic shifts in major social institutions (like family and economy) have created an increased demand for community and government care. For example, the increase in women working outside the home has made it more difficult to provide in-home care to aging parents, leading to an increase in the need for government-supported institutions (Raikhola and Kuroki 2009).
    ::这些差异基于对老龄化的文化态度,在中国,一些研究指出,作为所有其他美德定义(1971年,汉密尔顿,1990年)的虔诚(在一切事情上尊重父母和祖先)的态度(1971年,汉密尔顿,1990年)。日本在1986年前后的文化态度支持老年人应该得到援助的想法(Ogawa和Retherford,1993年)。然而,主要社会机构(如家庭和经济)的地震变化增加了对社区和政府护理的需求。例如,在家庭外工作的妇女的增加使得向老龄父母提供家庭护理更加困难,导致对政府支持的机构的需求增加(Raikhola和Kuroki,2009年)。

    In the United States, by contrast, many people view caring for the elderly as a burden. Even when there is a family member able and willing to provide for an elderly family member, 60 percent of family caregivers are employed outside the home and are unable to provide the needed support. At the same time, however, many middle-class families are unable to bear the financial burden of “outsourcing” professional health care, resulting in gaps in care (Bookman and Kimbrel 2011). It is important to note that even within the United States not all demographic groups treat aging the same way. While most Americans are reluctant to place their elderly members into out-of-home assisted care, demographically speaking, the groups least likely to do so are Latinos, African Americans, and Asians (Bookman and Kimbrel 2011).
    ::相比之下,在美国,许多人将照顾老年人视为负担,即使有家庭成员能够并愿意为老年家庭成员供养,60%的家庭照顾者受雇于家庭之外,无法提供所需的支助。 但是,与此同时,许多中产阶级家庭无法承担“外包”专业保健的经济负担,导致护理方面的缺口(Bookman和Kimbrel,2011年)。重要的是要指出,即使在美国,并非所有人口群体都对待老龄化问题。 虽然大多数美国人不愿意将其老年成员安置在家庭外的辅助护理,从人口统计学角度看,最不可能这样做的群体是拉丁美洲人、非裔美国人和亚裔(Bookman和Kimbrel,2011年)。

    Globally, the United States and other core nations are fairly well equipped to handle the demands of an exponentially increasing elderly population. However, peripheral and semi-peripheral nations face similar increases without comparable resources. Poverty among elders is a concern, especially among elderly women. The feminization of the aging poor, evident in peripheral nations, is directly due to the number of elderly women in those countries who are single, illiterate, and not a part of the labor force (Mujahid 2006).

    ::从全球来看,美国和其他核心国家完全有能力应对快速增长的老年人口的需求,然而,外围国家和半外围国家面临类似的增长,没有可比的资源。 老年人中的贫穷是一个令人关切的问题,特别是老年妇女。 老龄化穷人中女性化现象在外围国家显而易见,直接归因于那些国家中单身、文盲而不是劳动力中的老年妇女人数众多(Mujahid,2006年)。

    In 2002, the Second World Assembly on Aging was held in Madrid, Spain, resulting in the Madrid Plan, an internationally coordinated effort to create comprehensive social policies to address the needs of the worldwide aging population. The plan identifies three themes to guide international policy on aging: 1) publically acknowledging the global challenges caused by, and the global opportunities created by, a rising global population; 2) empowering the elderly; and 3) linking international policies on aging to international policies on development (Zelenev 2008).
    ::2002年,第二届老龄问题世界大会在西班牙马德里举行,产生了《马德里计划》,这是一项国际协调努力,旨在制定全面社会政策,满足全世界老龄人口的需要,该计划确定了指导国际老龄政策的三个主题伤心1) 公开承认全球人口不断增长带来的全球挑战和全球机遇;(2) 赋予老年人权力;(3) 将国际老龄政策与国际发展政策联系起来(Zelenev,2008年)。

    The Madrid Plan has not yet been successful in achieving all its aims. However, it has increased awareness of the various issues associated with a global aging population, as well as raising the international consciousness to the way that the factors influencing the vulnerability of the elderly (social exclusion, prejudice and discrimination, and a lack of socio-legal protection) overlap with other developmental issues (basic human rights, empowerment, and participation), leading to an increase in legal protections (Zelenev 2008).

    ::《马德里计划》尚未成功实现其所有目标,然而,它提高了人们对与全球人口老龄化有关的各种问题的认识,并提高了国际意识,使人们认识到影响老年人脆弱性的因素(社会排斥、偏见和歧视,缺乏社会法律保护)与其他发展问题(基本人权、增强权能和参与)重叠,从而导致法律保护的增加(Zelenev,2008年)。

      

    Disability
    ::残疾残疾残疾残疾

    A blue handicapped accessible sign is shown here.

    The handicapped accessible sign indicates that people with disabilities can access the facility. The Americans with Disabilities Act requires that access be provided to everyone. (Photo courtesy of Ltljltlj/Wikimedia Commons)
    ::残疾人无障碍标志表明残疾人可以进入该设施,《美国残疾人法》要求向每个人提供无障碍设施。 (Photo是Ltljltlj/Wiki Media Publics的礼让)


    Disability  refers to a reduction in one’s ability to perform everyday tasks. The World Health Organization makes a distinction between the various terms used to describe handicaps that’s important to the sociological perspective. They use the term impairment  to describe the physical limitations, while reserving the term disability to refer to the social limitation.
    ::残疾是指个人履行日常任务的能力的下降。 世界卫生组织(World World World World Organization)区分了用来描述对社会学观点至关重要的残疾的各种术语。 它们用“缺陷”来描述身体限制,同时保留“残疾”一词来指社会限制。

    Before the passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) in 1990, Americans with disabilities were often excluded from opportunities and social institutions many of us take for granted. This occurred not only through employment and other kinds of discrimination, but through casual acceptance by most Americans of a world designed for the convenience of the able-bodied. Imagine being in a wheelchair and trying to use a sidewalk without the benefit of wheelchair accessible curbs. Imagine as a blind person trying to access information without the widespread availability of Braille. Imagine having limited motor control and being faced with a difficult-to-grasp round door handle. Issues like these are what the ADA tries to address. Ramps on sidewalks, Braille instructions, and more accessible door levers are all accommodations to help people with disabilities.
    ::1990年《美国残疾人法》(ADA)通过之前,美国残疾人常常被排斥在机会和社会机构之外,我们许多人认为这是理所当然的,这不仅是因为就业和其他形式的歧视,而且是因为大多数美国人随意接受一个为身体健全者提供便利而设计的世界。想象一下坐在轮椅上,试图在没有轮椅无障碍路口的情况下使用人行道。想象一下,作为一个盲人,试图在没有广泛提供盲文的情况下获取信息。想象一下,运动控制有限,面对一个难以磨碎的圆门把手。这些问题是ADA试图解决的问题。人行道上的Ramps、盲文指示和更方便的门把手都是帮助残疾人的便利。

    People with disabilities can be stigmatized by their illness.  Stigmatization  means that their identity is spoiled; they are labeled as different, discriminated against, and sometimes even shunned. They are labeled (as an interactionist might point out) and ascribed a master status (as a functionalist might note), becoming “the blind girl” or “the boy in the wheelchair” instead of someone afforded a full identity by society. This can be especially true for people who are disabled due to mental illness or disorders.

    ::污名化意味着他们的身份被宠坏;他们被贴上不同的标签,受到歧视,有时甚至被避之不理;他们被贴上标签(互动者可能指出),并被赋予主位地位(功能主义者可能注意到),成为“盲人女孩”或“坐在轮椅上的男孩”,而不是社会赋予其充分身份的人;对于因精神疾病或精神失常而致残的人来说尤其如此。

    Many mental health disorders can be debilitating, affecting a person’s ability to cope with everyday life. This can affect social status, housing, and especially employment. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (2011), people with a disability had a higher rate of unemployment thaN people without a disability in 2010: 14.8 percent to 9.4 percent. This unemployment rate refers only to people actively looking for a job. In fact, eight out of 10 people with a disability are considered “out of the labor force;” that is, they do not have jobs and are not looking for them. The combination of this population and the high unemployment rate leads to an employment-population ratio of 18.6 percent among those with disabilities. The employment-population ratio for people without disabilities was much higher, at 63.5 percent (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2011).

    Summary
    ::摘要

    Despite generally good health in the U.S. compared with less-developed countries, America is still facing challenging issues such as a prevalence of obesity and diabetes. Moreover, Americans of historically disadvantaged racial groups, ethnicities, socioeconomic status, and gender experience lower levels of health care. Mental health and disability are health issues that are significantly impacted by social norms.