章节大纲

  • 常规

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  • 非实验性科学调查

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    Up in Smoke
    ::烟雾中

    You've probably seen this warning label dozens of times. It's been required on cigarette packs in the U.S. since 1965, one year after the U.S. Surgeon General first issued a report linking cigarette smoking with diseases like lung . The report was based on thousands of research articles, including important research results published by British scientists Richard Doll and Austin Bradford Hill. Starting in 1950, Doll and Hill conducted large-scale, long-term observational studies on smoking and lung cancer and demonstrated a strong correlation between the two.
    ::你可能看过这个警告标签几十次了。1965年,美国外科总长首次发表一份报告,将吸烟与肺病等疾病联系起来,一年后,美国香烟包上就要求这个标签。该报告基于数千篇研究文章,包括英国科学家理查德·多尔和奥斯汀·布拉德福德·希尔发表的重要研究成果。从1950年开始,多尔和希尔对吸烟和肺癌进行了大规模、长期的观察研究,并展示了两者之间的密切关联。

    Observational Studies
    ::观察研究

    Many questions in human biology are investigated with observational studies, as opposed to experimental studies. An observational study measures characteristics in a sample, but does not attempt to manipulate variables of interest. A simple example of an observational study is a political poll. A sample of adults might be asked how old they are and which of two candidates they favor. The study provides a snapshot in time of potential voters' opinions and how they differ by age of the respondent. Whether the results of the study apply to the as a whole depends mainly on how large and random the sample is.
    ::与实验研究相比,人类生物学中的许多问题都是通过观察研究来调查的,而不是通过实验研究来调查。观察研究衡量样本中的特征,但并不试图操纵感兴趣的变量。观察研究的一个简单例子就是政治民意测验。可以询问成人的样本,他们年龄多大,他们偏爱的两名候选人中谁是。研究提供了潜在选民意见的缩影,以及他们按被调查者年龄的不同。研究的结果是否适用于整体,主要取决于样本的大小和随机性。

    How is an observational study different from an , which is the gold standard of scientific research studies? The main difference is how subjects are treated. In an observational study, no attempt is made to influence the subjects in any way. In contrast, in an experiment, the researcher applies a treatment to a group of subjects and attempts to isolate the effects of the treatment on an outcome variable by comparing the treatment group with a control group. For example, in 1954, Jonas Salk did an experimental trial of his newly discovered polio vaccine by giving it to a very large sample of children. Children in an equally large control group were given a harmless injection of saline solution, but no vaccine. Salk then compared the two groups of children and determined that the vaccine was 80 to 90 percent effective in preventing polio.
    ::观察研究与科学研究研究的金质标准有什么不同?主要区别在于研究对象的处理方式。在观察研究中,没有试图以任何方式影响研究对象。相比之下,在一项实验中,研究人员对一组研究对象进行治疗,并试图通过比较治疗组和控制组,将治疗结果变量与治疗结果变量区分开来。例如,1954年,乔纳斯·萨尔克将新发现的脊髓灰质炎疫苗试验给了大量儿童样本。同样大的对照组中的儿童被注射了无害的盐碱溶液,但没有疫苗。萨尔克随后将这两组儿童进行比较,确定疫苗在预防脊髓灰质炎方面有效80%至90%。

    Types of Observational Studies
    ::观察研究类型

    There are three types of observational studies: cross-sectional, case-control, and cohort studies. All three have pros and cons.
    ::观察研究有三种类型:跨部门研究、个案控制和组群研究,所有三种研究都有利弊。

    Cross-sectional Studies
    ::跨部门研究

    A cross-sectional study  is a type of observational study that collects data from a sample of subjects just once at a certain point in time. The political poll described above is a simple example of a cross-sectional study. The link between smoking and lung cancer was also first suggested by cross-sectional studies. Researchers found a higher rate of lung cancer in people who smoked than in those who did not smoke at the time of the study, so the two variables seemed to be associated.
    ::跨部门研究是一种观察研究,它从某个时间点的抽样主题中只收集一次数据,上面描述的政治民意测验是跨部门研究的一个简单例子,吸烟与肺癌之间的联系也首先由跨部门研究提出,研究人员发现吸烟者患肺癌的比率高于研究时不吸烟者,因此这两个变量似乎相关联。

    Cross-sectional studies are relatively cheap and easy to do, but their results are weak, so they are rarely used as the only means of discovery . More often, a researcher uses a cross-sectional study to find variables that may be linked, and then does a case-control or cohort study to further investigate a possible relationship between the two variables.
    ::跨部门研究相对便宜,而且容易做,但其结果微弱,因此很少被用作唯一的发现手段。 更常见的是,研究人员利用跨部门研究来寻找可能关联的变量,然后进行案例控制或组群研究,以进一步调查两个变量之间可能存在的关系。

    Case-Control Studies
    ::个案控制研究

    A case-control study  is a type of observational study that compares a group of subjects having a trait of interest (cases) with a group of similar subjects not having the trait (controls). This type of study is retrospective. Subjects are asked to report their behaviors in the past in an attempt to find correlations between specific past behaviors and current status. The retrospective nature of case-control studies is their main weakness. Subjects' responses may be inaccurate because they forget or are dishonest about past habits.
    ::案例控制研究是一种观察研究,将一组具有兴趣特征的主体(案例)与一组没有特征(控制)的类似主体(案例)进行比较。这类研究具有追溯性。要求这些主体报告过去的行为,以寻找过去具体行为与当前状况之间的相互关系。案例控制研究的追溯性是其主要弱点。对象的反应可能不准确,因为他们忘记或不诚实地对待过去的习惯。

    A classic example of a case-control study is the early research on smoking and lung cancer carried out by Doll and Hill (who is pictured ). In 1950, the two scientists interviewed 700 lung cancer patients (cases) and 700 people without lung cancer (controls). They gathered information on past smoking habits and other characteristics of people in the two groups. When they compared the two groups, they found a strong association between past smoking behavior and current lung cancer status.
    ::案例控制研究的一个典型例子是Dolll和Hill(图象中)对吸烟和肺癌的早期研究。 1950年,两位科学家采访了700名肺癌病人(病例)和700名没有肺癌(控制)的人。他们收集了关于这两个群体中的人过去吸烟习惯和其他特征的信息。在比较这两个群体时,他们发现过去吸烟行为与目前的肺癌状况之间有着密切的联系。

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    Austin Bradford Hill was named a British knight for his important research in public health, including his work with Richard Doll establishing a link between smoking and lung cancer.
    ::奥斯汀·布拉德福德·希尔被提名为英国骑士,因为他在公共卫生方面的重要研究,包括与理查德·道尔合作,在吸烟与肺癌之间建立联系。

    Cohort Studies
    ::集体研究

    A cohort study is an observational study in which a group of similar subjects (the cohort) is selected and then followed over time. This type of study is prospective. The researchers collect data on the cohort periodically for months or even years into the future. Because the researchers collect the information directly, the data are likely to be more accurate than the self-reported recall data in case-control studies. Prospective data also allow researchers to establish the sequence of progression of disease states or other conditions of interest. Cohort studies are also the most costly and difficult observational studies to undertake.
    ::集体研究是一项观察性研究,在这项研究中,选择并随后跟踪一组类似的学科(组群),这种研究具有前瞻性,研究人员定期收集组群数据数月甚至未来数年,因为研究人员直接收集信息,数据可能比个案控制研究中自报的回溯数据更准确,未来数据还使研究人员能够确定疾病状态或其他感兴趣条件的演变顺序,共同研究也是最昂贵和最困难的观察研究。

    One of the largest-ever cohort studies was undertaken by Doll and Hill in 1951. It was based on their earlier case-control study, and it further investigated the link between smoking and lung cancer. The cohort that began the study included almost 50,000 British male physicians. Researchers  followed them   throughout the next 50 years. Initial findings of the study were first reported in 1954, and updated results were reported periodically after that.  The last report was published in 2004, and it reflected on the previous 50 years of findings. This study provided even stronger evidence for the correlation between smoking and lung cancer.
    ::多尔和希尔在1951年进行了有史以来最大的一组研究之一,该研究以其早期的病例控制研究为基础,进一步调查了吸烟与肺癌之间的联系;开始研究的组群包括近50 000名英国男性医生;研究人员在接下来的50年中跟踪研究;1954年首次报告了该研究的初步结果,此后定期报告了最新结果;2004年发表了上一份报告,并反映了过去50年的调查结果;这项研究更有力地证明了吸烟与肺癌之间的关系。

    Numerous other research studies, including experimental studies, have shown conclusively that smoking causes lung cancer, among many other health problems. The diagram shows some of the ill effects that have since been demonstrated to be caused by smoking.
    ::许多其他研究,包括实验研究,都确凿地表明吸烟引起肺癌和其他许多健康问题,图中显示了后来证明是吸烟造成的一些不良后果。

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    Lung cancer is just one of many adverse effects on the human body that research studies have shown to be caused by smoking. The more common adverse effects are in bold.
    ::研究显示,肺癌是吸烟对人体造成的许多不利影响之一,更常见的有害影响用黑体表示。

    Correlation vs. Causation in Observational Studies
    ::观测研究中的因果关系与因果关系

    Observational studies can generally establish correlation, but not necessarily causation. Correlation is an association between two variables in which a change in one variable is associated with a change in the other variable. Correlation may be strong or weak. It can also be positive or negative.
    ::观察研究一般可以建立相关性,但不一定建立因果关系。关联性是指两个变量之间的关联,其中一个变量的变化与另一个变量的变化相关。关联性可以是强的,也可以是弱的,也可以是正的,也可以是负的。

    • If two variables are shown to have a positive correlation , both variables change in the same direction. For example, an observational study might find that more smoking is correlated with higher risk of lung cancer. A s smoking goes up, so does lung cancer.
      ::如果两个变量被证明具有正相关关系,这两个变量都会朝着同一方向变化。 比如,观察研究可能会发现,更多的吸烟与肺癌风险较高相关。 随着吸烟上升,肺癌也随之上升。
    • If two variables are shown to have a negative correlation , they change in opposite directions. For example, an observational study might find that people who more are less likely to develop lung cancer. As exercise increases, lung cancer decreases.
      ::如果发现两个变数存在负相关关系,它们就会朝着相反的方向变化。例如,观察研究可能会发现,比较容易患肺癌的人不太可能患肺癌。随着运动的增加,肺癌会减少。

    One of the main differences between observational studies and experiments is the issue of correlation versus causation. Because observational studies do not control all variables, any correlations they show between variables cannot be interpreted as one variable causing another. In experiments, all possible variables are controlled, so it  is safer to conclude that changes in one variable cause changes in another. Unfortunately, when observational studies are reported in the news media, this distinction is not always  made. Instead, a variable that is correlated with another in an observational study may be reported incorrectly as causing changes in the other variable.
    ::观测研究和实验之间的主要区别之一是相关性与因果关系问题。由于观测研究不能控制所有变量,因此它们显示的变量之间的任何关联都无法被解释为造成另一个变量的变量。在实验中,所有可能的变量都受到控制,因此得出一个变量的变化导致另一个变量变化的结论比较安全。不幸的是,当观测研究在新闻媒体中报告时,并不总是作出这种区分。相反,观测研究中与另一个变量相关的变量可能被错误地报告为导致另一个变量的变化。

    In observational studies, it is always possible that some other variable affects both of the variables of interest and explains the correlation. An example of the confusion between  correlation and causation in observational studies is the case of the health effects of coffee. Many early observational studies of coffee consumption and health found a positive correlation between drinking coffee and health problems, such as heart disease and cancer. Does this mean that drinking coffee causes these health problems? Not necessarily, although news media have reported this conclusion. Looking more deeply into the issue reveals that coffee drinking is also associated with a less health-conscious lifestyle. People who drink coffee tend to practice other behaviors that may negatively impact their health, such as smoking cigarettes or drinking alcohol. Larger observational studies in which such lifestyle differences were taken into account have found no correlation between coffee consumption and health problems. In fact, they have found that moderate coffee consumption may actually have some health benefits.
    ::在观察研究中,总有可能有些其他变数影响感兴趣的变数,并解释其相关性。观察研究混淆相关性和因果关系的一个实例是咖啡对健康的影响。许多咖啡消费和健康早期观察研究发现咖啡饮用和健康问题(如心脏病和癌症)之间有正相关关系。这是否意味着咖啡饮用造成了这些健康问题?尽管新闻媒体已经报告了这一结论,但不一定如此。更深入地研究这一问题表明咖啡饮用也与健康意识较低的生活方式有关。喝咖啡的人往往采取其他可能对其健康产生不利影响的行为,如吸烟或饮酒。考虑到这种生活方式差异的较大观察研究发现咖啡饮用和健康问题之间没有关联。事实上,他们发现温和的咖啡饮用实际上可能有一些健康利益。

    Rationale for Observational Studies
    ::观察研究的理由

    If observational studies cannot establish causation, why are they done? Why aren't all research questions investigated experimentally? There are several important reasons to do observational studies:
    ::如果观察研究不能确定因果关系,为什么做这些研究?为什么没有对所有研究问题进行实验性调查?进行观察研究有几个重要的理由:

    • An observational study may be the only type of study feasible for certain research questions because experiments are impossible, impractical, or unethical to undertake. For example, it would be unethical to do an experiment on smoking and health in which subjects in the smoking sample are deliberate ly exposed to tobacco smoke and then observed to see if they develop lung cancer.
      ::观察研究可能是某些研究问题唯一可行的研究类型,因为实验是不可能的、不切实际的或不道德的。 比如,在吸烟和健康方面进行实验是不道德的,在实验中,吸烟样本中的主体故意接触烟草烟雾,然后观察是否发展肺癌。
    • An observational study is generally cheaper and easier to conduct than an experimental study.
      ::与实验研究相比,观测研究一般更便宜,也更容易进行。
    • An observational study usually can study more subjects and obtain a larger set of data than an experimental study.
      ::观察研究通常可以研究更多的科目,获得比实验研究更多的数据。

    Models
    ::模型模型

    Another way to gain scientific knowledge without experimentation is with modeling. A model is a representation of part of the real world. Did you ever build a model car or airplane? Scientific models are something like that. They represent the real world, but are simpler. This is one reason that models are especially useful for investigating complex systems. By studying a much simpler model, it is easier to learn how the real system works. 
    ::不进行实验而获取科学知识的另一种方式是模拟。模型代表了现实世界的一部分。你曾经建造过模拟汽车或飞机吗?科学模型就是这样的。它们代表着现实世界,但比较简单。这就是模型对调查复杂系统特别有用的原因之一。通过研究一个简单得多的模式,更容易了解实际系统是如何运作的。

    Like a hypothesis , a model must be evaluated. It is assessed by criteria such as how well it represents the real world, what limitations it has, and how useful it is. The usefulness of a model depends on how well its predictions match observations of the real world. Keep in mind that even when a model's predictions match real-world observations, it doesn't prove that the model is correct or that it is the only model that works.
    ::像假设一样,一个模型必须被评估。它被标准所评估,比如它代表真实世界的程度,它具有什么样的局限性,它是多么有用。一个模型的有用性取决于它的预测与真实世界的观测结果的匹配程度。记住,即使模型的预测与真实世界的观察相匹配,它也不能证明模型是正确的,或者它是唯一可行的模型。

    Modeling Biological Systems
    ::生物系统建模模型

    Many phenomena in biology occur as part of a complex system, whether the system is a , a human organ such as the brain , or an entire . Models of biological systems can range from simple two-dimensional diagrams to complex computer simulations. The model cell depicted in the diagram is an example of a simple model of a biological system.
    ::生物学中的许多现象都作为复杂系统的一部分出现,无论系统是一个、一个人体器官,如大脑,还是整个系统。生物系统的模型可以从简单的二维图到复杂的计算机模拟,从简单的二维图到复杂的计算机模拟。图中描述的模型细胞是生物系统简单模型的一个例子。

    Model of an animal cell
    ::动物细胞模型

     

    A much more complex model of a biological system is the human brain model being developed by the Blue Brain Project. This multi-year, multi-national project is attempting to create a biologically-detailed digital model and simulation of the human brain by reverse-engineering the brain down to the molecular level. The aim of the project is to study the brain's architecture and functional principles. Proponents of the model hope that it will eventually shed light on the nature of human consciousness.
    ::更复杂的生物系统模型是蓝脑项目正在开发的人类大脑模型。 这个多年的多国项目正试图通过逆向工程将大脑造就到分子水平,来创建生物详细数字模型和模拟人类大脑。该项目的目的是研究大脑的架构和功能原理。模型的支持者希望它最终能够揭示人类意识的性质。

    Model Organisms
    ::示范生物体

    Using other organisms as models of the is another way models are used in human biology research. A model organism is a nonhuman that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena. The expectation is that discoveries made in the model organism will provide insights into the workings of the human organism.  In researching human diseases, for example, model organisms allow for better understanding of the disease process without the added risk of harming actual human beings. The model species chosen should react to the disease or its treatment in a way that resembles human physiology . Although biological activity in a model organism does not ensure the same effect in humans, many drugs , treatments, and cures for human diseases are developed in part with the guidance of model organisms.
    ::模型生物是一种非人类生物,为了解特定生物现象进行了广泛的研究。预期模型生物的发现将使人们深入了解人体机体的运作情况。例如,在研究人类疾病时,模型生物可以使人们更清楚地了解疾病过程,而不会增加伤害实际人类的风险。所选择的模型物种应该以类似于人类生理学的方式对该疾病或其治疗作出反应。虽然模型生物体的生物活动不能确保对人类产生同样的效果,但许多药物、治疗和治疗人类疾病的方法部分是在模型生物的指导下开发的。

    Model organisms that have been used in human biology research range from such as E. coli   to nonhuman such as chimpanzees.  The mouse Mus musculus, pictured , is a commonly-used model organism in human medical research. Among other things, it has been widely used to study diet-induced obesity and related health problems. In fact, the mouse model of diet-induced obesity has become one of the most important tools for understanding the interplay of high-fat Western diets and the of obesity.
    ::在人类生物学研究中使用的模型生物从大肠类到黑猩猩类等非人类生物。鼠标Mus Musculus(图象)是人类医学研究中常用的模型生物。除其他外,它被广泛用于研究饮食引起的肥胖症和相关健康问题。事实上,由饮食引起的肥胖症的鼠模型已成为了解高脂肪西方饮食和肥胖症相互作用的最重要工具之一。

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    The mouse Mus musculus is commonly used as a model organism in human biology research.
    ::在人类生物学研究中,通常将鼠标肌肉肌肉作为模型生物。

    Feature: Reliable Sources
    ::特征:可靠来源

    You may get most of your news from the Internet. You probably also research personal questions  and term paper topics online. Unlike information in newspapers and most television news broadcasts, information on the Internet is not regulated for quality or accuracy. Almost anybody can publish almost anything they wish on the w eb. The responsibility is on the user to evaluate Internet resources.  How do you know if the resources you find online are reliable? The questions below will help you assess their reliability.
    ::您可以从互联网上获取大部分消息。 您可能还会在线研究个人问题和论文主题。 与报纸和大多数电视新闻广播的信息不同, 互联网上的信息没有质量或准确性方面的监管。 几乎任何人都可以在网络上发布他们想要的几乎所有信息。 用户有责任评估互联网资源。 您如何知道您在网上找到的资源是否可靠? 以下问题将帮助您评估其可靠性 。

    1. How did you find the w eb page? If you just looked up a topic or question, the search results may or may not be reliable. More likely to be trustworthy are w eb pages recommended by a faculty member, cited in an academic source, or linked with a reputable w ebsite.
      ::您是如何找到网页的? 如果您只是查询某个主题或问题, 搜索结果可能可靠, 也可能不可靠。 更有可能令人信赖的是教师推荐的网页、 学术来源引用的网页, 或与有声望的网站链接的网页 。
    2. What is the site's ? If its URL includes .edu, it is affiliated with a college or university. If it includes .gov, it is affiliated with the federal government. If it includes .org, it is affiliated with a nonprofit organization. Such w ebsites are generally more trustworthy sources of information than .com w ebsites, which are commercial or business w ebsites.
      ::网站是什么?如果其 URL 包括.edu, 则与大学或大学有关联。如果它包括.gov, 则与联邦政府有关联。如果它包括.org, 则与非营利组织有关联。这些网站通常比.com 网站(商业或商业网站)更可信。
    3. Who is the author of the w eb page? Is the author affiliated with a recognized organization or institution? Are the author's credentials listed, and are they relevant to the information on the page? Is current contact information for the author provided?
      ::谁是网页的作者?提交人是否与一个得到承认的组织或机构有联系?提交人的全权证书是否列出,是否与网页上的信息有关?是否提供了提交人目前的联系信息?
    4. Is the information trustworthy? Are sources cited for facts and figures? Is a bibliography provided? Does there seem to be a particular bias or point of view presented, or does the information seem fair and balanced? Does the page contain advertising that might impact the content?
      ::资料是否可信? 资料来源是否说明事实和数字? 是否有文献目录? 是否有提供? 是否有特别的偏向或观点? 资料是否看来是公平和平衡的? 页面中是否有可能影响内容的广告?
    5. Is the information current? When was the page created and last updated? Are the  links on the page functional?
      ::信息是否为最新信息? 页面是何时创建和上次更新的? 页面上的链接是否功能性?

    Put this advice into practice. Go online and find several web pages that provide information about  smoking and lung cancer. Which sites do you think provide the most reliable information? Why?
    ::将这个建议付诸实践。 上网搜索几个网页, 提供有关吸烟和肺癌的信息。 你认为哪个网站能提供最可靠的信息? 为什么?

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Many questions in human biology are investigated with observational studies, as opposed to experimental studies. An observational study measures characteristics in a sample, but does not attempt to manipulate subjects.
      ::与实验研究相比,人类生物学中的许多问题都是通过观察研究而不是实验研究来调查的,观察研究衡量样本中的特征,但并不试图操纵对象。
    • There are three types of observational studies: cross-sectional, case-control, and cohort studies. All three types have pros and cons.
      ::观察研究有三种类型:跨部门研究、个案控制和组群研究,所有三种类型都有利弊。
    • Observational studies can determine whether variables are correlated, but not whether changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. Experiments are generally needed to show causation. Although observational studies do not establish causation, there are still several important reasons to conduct  them.
      ::观察研究可以确定变量是否相互关联,但不能确定一个变量的变化是否导致另一个变量的变化。通常需要实验来显示因果关系。虽然观察研究不能确定因果关系,但进行观察仍有若干重要原因。
    • Another way to gain scientific knowledge without experimentation is with modeling. A model is a representation of part of the real world. Models of biological systems range from simple two-dimensional diagrams to complex computer simulations.
      ::不进行实验而获取科学知识的另一种方式是建模。一个模型代表了现实世界的一部分。生物系统模型的范围从简单的二维图到复杂的计算机模拟。
    • Using other organisms as models of the human body is another way models are used in human biology research.
      ::利用其他生物作为人体的模型是人类生物学研究中另一种使用模型的方式。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. Explain why observational studies cannot establish causation. Describe an example to illustrate your explanation.
    ::1. 解释观察研究不能确定因果关系的原因,请举例说明说明你的解释。

    2. Compare and contrast the three types of observational studies described above.
    ::2. 比较和比较上述三种观察研究。

    3. Identify three possible reasons for doing an observational study.
    ::3. 查明进行观测研究的三个可能理由。

    4. Why are models commonly used in human biology research?
    ::4. 为什么人类生物学研究通常使用模型?

    5. A ____________ study involves the recall of variables that occurred in the past, while a _____________ study involves the observation of variables from the beginning.
    ::5. 研究涉及回顾过去发生的变数,研究涉及从一开始就观察变数。

    A. positive correlation; negative correlation
    ::正面相关性;负相关性

    B. negative correlation; positive correlation
    ::B. 负相关;正相关

    C. retrospective; prospective
    ::C. 回顾;前景

    D. prospective; retrospective
    ::D. 前景;回顾;回顾

    6. True or False : A positive correlation means there are health benefits to the variable under investigation.
    ::6. 真实的或虚假的:正相关意味着正在调查的变数对健康有利。

    7. True or False : A cohort is a group of subjects of different ages, weights, genders, and health statuses.
    ::7. 真实或假:组群是年龄、体重、性别和健康状况不同的一组主体。

    8. A study is done to investigate whether soda consumption influences the development of diabetes. The subjects are individuals recently diagnosed with diabetes, compared to controls who do not have diabetes. All of the respondents are asked how many times a week they drank soda over the last two years. Answer the following questions about this scientific investigation.
    ::8. 为调查苏打水消费是否影响糖尿病的发育,进行了一项研究,对象为最近被诊断患有糖尿病的个人,与没有糖尿病的受控者相比,这些受访者被问及在过去两年里每周喝多少次苏打水,并回答以下关于这一科学调查的问题。

    a. What type of observational study is this?
    ::a. 这是何种观察研究?

    b. The subjects with diabetes are “matched” to the controls, meaning that the researchers tried to minimize the effect of other variables outside of the variable of interest (i.e. soda consumption). What do you think some of those other variables could be?
    ::b. 糖尿病的患者与控制对象“相匹配”,即研究人员试图将利息变量以外的其他变量(即苏打水消费)的影响降到最低。

    c. Do you think the data about soda consumption will be accurate? Why or why not?
    ::c. 你认为苏打水消费数据是否准确?

    d. How could you change the study to get more accurate data on whether there is a relationship between soda consumption and diabetes? Explain why your new study would be more accurate.
    ::d. 如何改变研究,以获得关于苏打水消费和糖尿病之间是否存在关系的更准确的数据?解释为什么你的新研究会更准确。

    e. Do you think that computer simulation models of biological systems can be accurate without observations or experiments on actual living organisms or tissues?
    ::e. 你认为不观测或试验实际活生物体或组织,生物系统的计算机模拟模型是否准确?

    9. Explain why both observational and experimental investigations are useful in science.
    ::9. 解释观察和实验性调查在科学方面为何有用。

    Explore More
    ::探索更多

    If you are still unclear about the differences between observational and experimental studies, watch this short video for a simple comparison of the two major types of studies. 
    ::如果您仍不清楚观测和实验研究之间的差异,请看这段短片,简单比较两大类研究。

     Learn more about the Blue Brain Project by watching this TED talk. 
    ::通过观看TED的演讲,更多了解蓝脑项目。