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    Case Study Conclusion: Our Invisible Inhabitants
    ::案例研究结论:我们的隐隐形居民

    As you may recall from the beginning of the chapter, Julia’s strep throat was caused by Streptococcus pyogenes  bacteria, the species shown in the photomicrograph above. She took antibiotics to treat the  S. pyogenes infection, but this also affected  her “good” bacteria, throwing off the balance of microorganisms living inside of her and resulting in diarrhea and a yeast infection.
    ::正如你可能记得的,从这一章的开头,朱莉娅的喉咙链条是由上述摄影摄影图中显示的物种Streptococcccus 血原细菌造成的。 她服用抗生素治疗S. 血原感染,但这也影响了她的“好”细菌,使生活在她体内的微生物的平衡脱落,并导致腹泻和酵母感染。

    After reading this chapter, you should now know that microorganisms such as bacteria and yeast that live in humans are also similar to us in many ways. They are living organisms, so we share the traits of homeostasis, organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, and reproduction. They, like us, contain genes, consist of cells, and have the ability to evolve. Julia’s beneficial gut bacteria help digest her food as part of their metabolic processes. Julia got a yeast infection likely because the growth and reproductive rates of the yeast living on her body were not held in check by beneficial bacteria after she took the antibiotics. You can see that there are many ways in which an understanding of the basic characteristics of all life can directly apply to your own.
    ::阅读本章之后,你现在应该知道生活在人类中的细菌和酵母等微生物在许多方面也与我们相似。它们是活生物体,因此我们分享了自足、组织、新陈代谢、成长、适应、对刺激和生殖的反应等特征。它们和我们一样含有基因,由细胞组成,并具有进化能力。朱丽亚的有益直肠细菌有助于消化其食物,作为代谢过程的一部分。朱丽亚身体上的酵母的生长和生殖率在她服用抗生素后没有被有用的细菌控制,所以她身上的酵母的生长和生殖率可能感染了酵母。你可以看到,对于所有生命的基本特征的理解可以通过多种方式直接适用于你自己。

    You also learned how living organisms are classified, from bacteria that are in the Bacteria domain, to yeast (fungus kingdom) and humans (animal kingdom) that are both in the Eukarya domain. You probably now recognize that Streptococcus pyogenes  is the binomial nomenclature for this species, and the fact that Streptococcus refers to the genus name.
    ::你还知道生物生物是如何被分类的,从细菌的细菌到酵母(动物王国)和人类(动物王国),这两种生物都属于尤卡里亚的范畴。你现在可能已经认识到,Streptococcccus pygeniones是这个物种的二元名称,而Streptococccuscus则提到基因名称。

    As Julia’s doctor told her, there are many different species of microorganisms living in the human digestive system. You should recognize this as the type of biodiversity called species diversity. This diversity is maintained in a balance, or homeostasis, that can be upset when one type of organism is killed — for instance, by antibiotics.
    ::正如Julia的医生告诉她的那样,人类消化系统中存在着许多不同的微生物种类。 你应该承认这是生物多样性的种类,叫作物种多样性。 这种多样性在平衡中得以维持,或者说在自足状态中得以维持,当一种类型的有机体被杀死时(比如抗生素),这种多样性可能会令人沮丧。

    Julia’s doctor advised her to complete the entire course of antibiotics because stopping too early would kill or inhibit the bacteria that are most susceptible to the antibiotic, while leaving the bacteria that are more resistant to the antibiotic alive. This difference in susceptibility to antibiotics is an example of genetic diversity. Over time, the surviving antibiotic-resistant bacteria will have increased survival and reproductive rates compared to the more susceptible bacteria, and the trait of antibiotic resistance will become more common in the population. In this way, the bacteria can evolve and become better adapted to their environment — at a major cost to our health, because our antibiotics will no longer be effective! This issue of improper use of antibiotics leading to increased antibiotic resistance is of  major concern to  public health experts.
    ::朱丽亚的医生建议她完成整个抗生素过程,因为过早停止会杀死或抑制最易感染抗生素的细菌,同时让抗生素更耐受抗生素的细菌存活下来。 抗生素的耐机性差异是遗传多样性的一个例子。 与较易感染的细菌相比,存活下来的抗生素抗生素性细菌将增加存活率和生殖率,抗生素抗药性特征在民众中将变得更加常见。 这样,细菌可以进化并更好地适应其环境 — — 这会给我们的健康带来重大损失,因为我们的抗生素将不再有效。 抗生素使用不当导致抗生素抗药性增加的问题是公共卫生专家的主要关切。

    After reading this chapter, you know how humans are classified, and you've learned some characteristics of humans and closely related species . Beyond our more obvious features of big brains, intelligence, and the ability to walk upright, we also serve as a home to many different organisms that may be invisible to the naked eye, but play a big role in maintaining our health.
    ::在阅读了本章之后,你知道人类是如何被分类的, 你学到了人类和密切相关的物种的一些特征。除了我们更明显的大大脑、智慧和直立能力等特征之外,我们还是许多不同的生物的家园,这些生物可能是肉眼看不见的,但在维护我们的健康方面起着很大的作用。

    Chapter Summary
    ::章次摘要

    In this chapter, you learned about the basic principles of biology and how humans are situated among other living organisms. Specifically, you learned:
    ::在本章中,你了解了生物学的基本原则 以及人类与其他生物体的关系。具体地说,你学到了:

    • To be classified as a living thing, most scientists agree that an object must exhibit seven characteristics, including:
      • They maintain a more-or-less constant internal environment, which is called homeostasis.
        ::它们维持着一个或多或少的 恒定的内部环境, 也就是所谓的共振。
      • They have multiple levels of organization and consist  of one or more cells.
        ::它们有多个层次的组织,由一个或多个单元组成。
      • They use  energy and are  capable of metabolism.
        ::它们利用能源,并且能够进行新陈代谢。
      • They can  grow and develop.
        ::它们能够成长和发展。
      • They can  evolve adaptations to the environment.
        ::它们可以发展对环境的适应。
      • They can  detect and respond to environmental stimuli .
        ::它们能够探测和应对环境刺激因素。
      • They can reproduce , which is the process by which living things give rise to offspring.
        ::它们可以繁殖, 也就是生物 产生后代的过程。

      ::大部分科学家都同意,物体必须具有七个特征,包括:它们保持一个或多或少的常态内部环境,称为软体保持。它们有多个层次的组织,由一个或多个细胞组成。它们使用能量,能够新陈代谢。它们可以成长和发育。它们可以发展环境适应。它们可以探测和应对环境刺激。它们可以繁殖,这就是生物产生后代的过程。
    • Four basic principles or theories unify all the fields of biology: cell theory, gene theory, homeostasis, and evolutionary theory.
      • According to cell theory, all living things are made of cells and come from other living cells.
        ::根据细胞理论 所有生物都是由细胞组成的 并且来自其他生物细胞
      • Gene theory states that the characteristics of living things are controlled by genes that pass from parents to offspring.
        ::Gene理论指出,生物的特性受从父母传给后代的基因控制。
      • All living things — and even the entire biosphere — strive to maintain homeostasis.
        ::所有生物——甚至整个生物圈——都努力保持共生。
      • The characteristics of living things change over time as they evolve , and some acquire adaptations  or traits that better suit them to a given environment.
        ::生活事物的特征随着时间的演变而变化,有些则获得更适合它们适应特定环境的适应性或特性。

      ::四个基本原则或理论统一了生物学的所有领域:细胞理论、基因理论、自闭症和进化理论。根据细胞理论,所有生物都是由细胞组成的,来自其他活细胞。基因理论指出,生物的特性由从父母传到后代的基因控制。所有生物——甚至整个生物圈——都努力保持自闭症。随着时间的演变,生物的特性会发生变化,有些生物获得更适合它们的环境的适应或特性。
    • Biodiversity refers to the variety of life that exists on Earth. It includes species diversity, genetic diversity within species, and ecosystem diversity.
      ::生物多样性是指地球上存在的各种生命,包括物种多样性、物种内的遗传多样性和生态系统多样性。
    • The formal biological definition of species is a group of actually or potentially interbreeding organisms. In reality, organisms are often classified into species on the basis of morphology.
      ::物种的正式生物定义是由实际或潜在相互交织的生物构成的一组生物,在现实中,生物往往根据形态分类为物种。
    • A system for classifying living things was introduced by Linnaeus in the 1700s. It includes taxa from the species (least inclusive) to the kingdom (most inclusive). Linnaeus also introduced a system of naming species, called binomial nomenclature.
      ::Linnaeus在1700年代引入了生物分类系统,其中包括从物种(最小包容)到王国(最包容)的分类群。 Linnaeus还引入了命名物种系统,称为二元命名。
    • The domain, a taxon higher than the kingdom, was later added to the Linnaean system. Living things are generally grouped into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Humans and other animal species are placed in the Eukarya domain.
      ::这个领域是比王国高的税项,后来又被添加到林纳纳体系中。 生物通常分为三个领域:细菌、Archaea和Eukarya。 人类和其他动物物种被置于尤卡里亚域中。
    • Modern systems of classification take into account phylogenies, or evolutionary histories of related organisms, rather than just morphological similarities and differences. These relationships are often represented by phylogenetic trees or other tree-like diagrams.
      ::现代分类系统考虑到相关生物的植物基因或进化史,而不仅仅是形态上的相似和差异,这些关系往往由植物基因树或其他树形图所体现。
    • The human species,  Homo   sapiens,  is placed in the primate order of the class of mammals, which are chordates in the animal kingdom.
      ::人类的人类, 智人, 被置于 动物类哺乳动物的灵长类顺序, 它们是动物王国的染色体。
    • Traits that humans share with other primates include: five digits with nails and opposable thumbs; an excellent sense of vision, including the ability to see in color and stereoscopic vision; a large brain, high degree of intelligence, and complex behaviors. Like most other primates, we also live in social groups. Many of our primate traits are adaptations to a life in the trees.
      ::人类与其他灵长类人分享的轨迹包括:五位数的指甲和可抗力拇指;极好的视觉感知,包括以颜色和立体视觉观察的能力;庞大的大脑、高度的智慧和复杂的行为。和大多数其他灵长类人一样,我们也生活在社会群体中。我们的许多灵长类特征是适应树木中的生活。
    • Within the primate order, our species is placed in the hominid family, which also includes chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans.
      ::在灵长类中 我们的物种被安置在 人类大家庭中 也包括黑猩猩 猩猩 猩猩和猩猩
    • The genus  Homo  first evolved about 2.8 million years ago. Early  Homo  species were fully bipedal but had small brains. All are now extinct.
      ::早期的同性物种是完全两极分立的,但大脑却很小,现在都绝种了。
    • During the last 800 thousand years,  Homo sapiens  evolved, with smaller faces, jaws, and front teeth, but much bigger brains than earlier  Homo  species.
      ::在过去的80万年里, 智人进化了, 面孔、下巴和前牙都小, 但大脑比以前的同种人大得多。

    Now that you understand the basic principles of biology and some of the characteristics of living organisms, in the next chapter, you will learn about the molecules that make up living organisms, as well as the chemistry that allows organisms to exist and function.
    ::既然你理解生物学的基本原则 和活生物体的一些特征, 在下一章,你将了解 构成活生物体的分子, 以及允许生物体存在和运作的化学。

    Chapter Summary Review 
    ::" 概述 " 章次

    1. What are the four basic unifying principles of biology?
    ::1. 生物学的四项基本统一原则是什么?

    2. A scientist is exploring in a remote area with many unidentified species. He finds an unknown object that does not appear to be living. What is one way he could tell whether it is a dead organism that was once alive or an inanimate object that was never living?
    ::2. 科学家正在一个许多不明物种的偏远地区进行探索,他发现一个似乎没有生命的未知物体,他能够用什么方法来判断是曾经活着的死生物体还是从未活着的无生命体?

    3. Cows are dependent on bacteria living in their digestive systems to help break down cellulose in the plant material that they eat. Explain what characteristics these bacteria must have to be considered living organisms themselves (and not just part of the cow).
    ::3. 牛依赖生活在消化系统中的细菌来帮助打破它们所吃植物材料中的纤维素,解释这些细菌必须被视为活生物体(而不仅仅是牛的一部分)的特征是什么。

    4. What is the basic unit of structure and function in living things?
    ::4. 生命中的基本结构和功能单位是什么?

    5. Give one example of homeostasis that occurs in humans.
    ::5. 举一个例子说明在人类中出现的自闭症。

    6. Can a living thing exist without using energy? Why or why not?
    ::6. 不使用能源,生命能否存在?为什么或为什么?

    7. True or False:  Evolution is a change in the characteristics of living things over time.
    ::7. 真实或虚假:进化是生活特征随时间变化的一种变化。

    8. True or False:  Only some living things have genes.
    ::8. 真实或假:只有某些生物有基因。

    9. Give an example of a response to stimuli that occurs in a unicellular organism.
    ::9. 举一个例子,说明对在非细胞有机体中发生的刺激的反应。

    10. A scientist discovers two types of similar looking insects that have not been previously identified. Answer the following questions about this discovery.
    ::10. 一名科学家发现了两种以前未查明的类似观赏昆虫,回答关于这一发现的问题如下。

    a. What is one way she can try to determine whether the two types are the same species?
    ::a. 她能够试图确定这两种类型是否同种物种的一种方式是什么?

    b. If they are not the same species, what are some ways she can try to determine how closely related they are to each other?
    ::b. 如果它们不是同一种物种,那么她能以什么方法确定它们彼此之间的密切关系?

    c. What is the name for a type of diagram she can create to demonstrate their evolutionary relationship to each other and to other insects?
    ::c. 她能够制作的图表类型的名称是什么,以表明它们彼此之间以及与其他昆虫之间的进化关系?

    d. If she determines that the two types are different species but the same genus, create your own names for them using binomial nomenclature. You can be creative and make up the genus and species names, but be sure to put them in the format of binomial nomenclature.
    ::d. 如果她确定这两种类型是不同的物种,但同一种物种,请使用二进制名称为其创建自己的名称。你可以具有创造性,并编造基因和物种名称,但一定要将其列入二进制名称格式。

    e. If they are the same species but have different colors, what kind of biodiversity does this most likely reflect?
    ::e. 如果这些物种是同一物种,但颜色不同,那么最可能反映的生物多样性是什么?

    f. If they are the same species, but one type of insect has a better sense of smell for their limited food source than the other type, what do you think will happen over time? Assume the insects will experience natural selection.
    ::f. 如果一种昆虫是同一物种,但一种昆虫对有限的食物来源的嗅觉比另一种更清楚,那么你认为随着时间推移会发生什么?假定昆虫将经历自然选择。

    11. Put the following taxa in order from the most specific to the most inclusive:
    ::11. 从最具体到最包容的分类组合排列如下:

    phylum; species; kingdom; genus; family; domain; class; order
    ::植物、物种、王国、基因、家庭、领域、阶级、秩序

    12. Humans are in the _______________ domain.
    ::12. 人类属于...领域。

    13. Monkeys, apes, and humans are all in the:
    ::13. 猴子、猩猩和人类都存在于:

    a. same genus
    ::a. 同一类型

    b. same order
    ::b. 同一顺序

    c. same class
    ::c. 同一等级

    d. both B and C
    ::d. B 和 C 两者

    14. Amphibians, such as frogs, have a backbone, but no hair. What is the most specific taxon that they share with humans?
    ::14. 青蛙等两栖动物有脊椎,但没有毛发,他们与人类分享的最具体的分类是什么?

    15. Arboreal means:
    ::15. 阿波尔地物系指:

    a. living on the ground
    ::a. 在实地生活

    b. living in the ocean
    ::b. 生活在海洋中

    c. living in trees
    ::c. 生活在树木中

    d. living on grasslands
    ::d. 生活在草原上

    16. What is one characteristic of extinct Homo species that was larger than that of  modern humans?
    ::16. 已经灭绝的同性恋物种比现代人类物种大的一个特征是什么?

    17. What is one characteristic of modern humans that is larger than that of  extinct Homo species?
    ::17. 现代人类的什么特征比灭绝的同性恋物种的特征更大?

    18 . True or False:  Most primates live in social groups.
    ::18. 真实或假:大多数灵长类人生活在社会群体中。

    19. True or False:  Most other mammals have longer lifespans than primates.
    ::19. 真实或假:大多数其他哺乳动物的寿命比灵长类动物长。

    20. True or False:  Archaea are classified into the Bacteria domain.
    ::20. 真实或假:Archaea被划入细菌域。

    21. How does the long period of dependency (of infants on adults) in primates relate to learning?
    ::21. 灵长类动物(婴儿对成人的依赖)的长期依赖与学习有何关系?

    22. Name one type of primate in the hominid family, other than humans.
    ::22. 除了人类之外,在人类家族中也列出一种灵长类动物。

    23. Why do you think that scientists compare the bones of structures (such as the feet) of extinct Homo species to ours?
    ::23. 为什么你认为科学家会把灭绝的同性物种的结构(如脚)的骨头与我们的相比?

    24. Some mammals other than primates — such as cats — also have their eyes placed in the front of their face. How do you think the vision of a cat compares to that of a mouse, where the eyes are placed more at the sides?
    ::24. 一些非灵长类的哺乳动物,如猫,也把眼睛放在他们面前,你认为猫的视觉与老鼠的视觉相比如何?

    25. Living sponges are animals. Are we in the same kingdom as sponges? Explain your answer.
    ::25. 活海绵是动物,我们是否与海绵处于同一王国?解释你的答复。