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  • 生物技术 - 先进

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    So how does a scientist work with DNA?
    ::那么科学家如何使用DNA呢?

    It usually starts with the sequence of As, Cs, Gs and Ts. Once the sequence is known, so much more can be done. Specific regions can be isolated, cloned, amplified, and analyzed. In fact, the ability to amplify a specific region of has revolutionized biological research. And all of this is done to directly or indirectly help us.
    ::它通常从A、C、G和T等序列开始。 一旦知道序列,就可以做很多事情。 特定区域可以被孤立、克隆、放大和分析。 事实上,扩展特定区域的能力已经使生物研究革命化了。 所有这些都是为了直接或间接地帮助我们。

    Biotechnology
    ::生物技术生物技术

    Is it really possible to clone people? Another question is, should we clone people? Are scientific fantasies, such as depicted on TV shows such as Star Trek or in the movie GATTACA , actually a possibility? Who can really say? How, really, will science affect our future? The answers partially lie in the field of biotechnology.
    ::克隆人真的有可能吗?另一个问题是,我们应该克隆人吗?科学幻想,如《星际迷航》等电视节目或电影《关贸总协定》中所描述的科学幻想,实际上是否有可能?谁真的能说?科学将如何影响我们的未来?科学将如何真正影响我们的未来?答案部分在于生物技术领域。

    Biotechnology is technology based on biological applications. These applications are increasingly used in medicine, and food science. Biotechnology combines many features of biology , including genetics , molecular biology, biochemistry , embryology, and biology. Many aspects of biotechnology center around DNA and its applications, otherwise known as DNA technology. We could devote a whole textbook to current applications of biotechnology, however, we will focus on the applications towards medicine and agriculture, and the extension into the forensic sciences. First, though, we need to understand DNA technology.
    ::生物技术是以生物应用为基础的技术。这些应用越来越多地用于医学和食品科学。生物技术结合了生物学的许多特征,包括遗传学、分子生物学、生物化学、胚胎学和生物学。生物技术的许多方面以DNA及其应用为中心,又称DNA技术。我们可以专门用一整本教科书来研究生物技术的当前应用。然而,我们将集中研究医药和农业的应用以及法医学的扩展。但首先,我们需要了解DNA技术。

    DNA Technology
    ::DNA技术

    What is DNA technology? Is it using and manipulating DNA to help people? Is it using DNA to make better medicines and individualized treatments? Is it analyzing DNA to determine predispositions to genetic diseases? The answers to these questions, and many more, is yes. And the answers to many of these issues begin with the .
    ::DNA技术是什么?它是否利用和操纵DNA来帮助人们?它是否利用DNA来制造更好的药物和个性化治疗?它是否分析DNA来决定基因疾病的倾向?这些问题的答案和更多的答案是肯定的。对许多问题的答案都是从这些问题的答案开始的。

    Scientists have sequenced a consensus version of the . Now what? Do we know what all the genes are or what they do? Not yet. Do we know what phenotypes are associated with in the genes? For many genes, or even most genes, we do not. Do we even know exactly how many genes we have? Not exactly. And we are far away from knowing what, at the genomic level, makes us all unique. So how does this information help us? The Human Genome Project has been labeled a landmark scientific event. But what can we do with this information? More on the Human Genome Project will be discussed in the DNA Technology: The Human Genome Project (Advanced) concept.
    ::科学家们已经测算了一致的版本。 现在呢?我们知道所有的基因是什么或它们做了什么吗?还不知道。我们知道基因中什么是苯型吗?对于许多基因,甚至大多数基因来说,我们不知道。我们甚至知道我们有多少基因吗?不确切地说,我们还远远不知道在基因组一级什么使我们都变得独特。所以,这种信息如何帮助我们?人类基因组项目被贴上了标志性的科学事件标签。但是,我们能做些什么呢?关于人类基因组项目的更多信息将在DNA技术中讨论:人类基因组项目(Advanced)概念。

    There are many applications of genetic information, including applications in medicine and agriculture. The applications of genetics to have become one of the most important aspects of the criminal justice system. And of course, these applications raise many ethical questions.  
    ::遗传信息有许多应用,包括在医学和农业方面的应用,基因应用已成为刑事司法系统最重要的方面之一,当然,这些应用提出了许多伦理问题。

    DNA Sequencing
    ::DNA 顺序

    For years, arguably beginning with the rediscovery of Mendel's work in the early 1900s, scientists have known about heritable factors or genes. Then in the 1940s and 1950s, when it was proven that DNA is the genetic material and has a triplet code made of just four bases, understanding the sequence of this code became the next significant endeavor. How do you sequence the ACGTs? The told us of the amino acids coded for by each codon , but it also told us that multiple codons could code for the same amino acid. Would sequencing the human genome explain to us what it means to be human? Maybe at a molecular level. But even prior to undertaking such a large effort, sequencing small parts, even just small segments of a gene, would form the basis of DNA analysis and DNA technology. But first methods to sequence DNA had to be developed.
    ::多年来,从19世纪初重新发现门德尔的工作开始,科学家们就已经知道遗传因素或基因。 在1940年代和1950年代,当DNA被证明是遗传物质,并且有一个由四个基数组成的三重代码时,理解这个代码的顺序就成了下一个重大任务。你如何测序ACGT?告诉我们每个科登的氨基酸编码,但它也告诉我们,多种codon可以对同一种氨基酸进行编码。人类基因组的测序能否向我们解释它意味着什么?也许在分子一级。但即使在进行如此大规模的努力之前,测序小部分,即使是基因的小部分,即使是基因的小部分,也会构成DNA分析和DNA技术的基础。但首先必须开发DNA测序的方法。

    Sequencing of DNA would allow the analysis of genes to become more feasible. How big is a gene? Where are the start and stop codons ? Where are the intron and exon junctions? What is the gene's consensus sequence? What are significant base changes within a gene? These questions could start to be answered.
    ::DNA的顺序将使得基因分析变得更为可行。 基因有多大? 开始和停止的库登在哪里? 开关和开关在哪里? 开关和开关在哪里? 基因的一致序列是什么? 基因中的显著基本变化是什么? 这些问题可以开始回答。

    DNA sequencing was built upon earlier knowledge of DNA polymerases and DNA replication . The chain- termination method , which makes use of a "defective" DNA nucleotide , is the basis of DNA sequencing. This method is also known as the Sanger method, named after its developer Frederick Sanger. In this process, one strand of DNA is used as a template , just as in DNA replication. The nucleotide chain elongates as a deoxynucleotide (dNTP) is attached to the 3' carbon end of the chain based on the base-pair rules. At the chain termination method, dideoxynucleotides (ddNTPs) are utilized in the sequencing reaction. ddNTPs lack a 3'-OH group necessary for elongation . When a ddNTP is incorporated into the elongating chain, the elongation process stops at that base. When four separate sequencing reactions are done, one each in the presence of a particular ddNTP, and the products are separated by size through gel electrophoresis , the DNA sequence can be read.
    ::DNA测序基于对DNA聚合酶和DNA复制的早期知识。 链式脱氧法是DNA测序的基础。 这一方法也称为Sanger方法, 以其开发者Frederick Sanger命名。 在这一过程中, 一串DNA被用作模板, 就像DNA复制一样。 核酸链延展作为脱氧核糖核酸( dNTP) 的脱氧核糖核酸( dNTP) 与链的3' 碳端相连, 以基底为规则。 在链式终止法中, 使用双氧核酸( dNTP) 。 在测序反应中, 使用双氧核酸( dNTP) 。 ddNTP 缺少一个3'HAH 的延长所需的组 。 当 ddNTP 融入延展链时, 该基底线的变长过程停止。 当进行四次不同的测序反应时, 特定 ddNTP 出现一次, 产品通过凝胶电流的大小分开。

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Biotechnology is technology based on biological applications, combining many features of Biology including genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology, and cell biology.
      ::生物技术是一种基于生物应用的技术,结合生物学的许多特征,包括遗传学、分子生物学、生物化学、胚胎学和细胞生物学。
    • The goal of the Human Genome Project is to understand the genetic make-up of the human species by determining the DNA sequence of the human genome and the genome of a few model organisms.
      ::人类基因组项目的目标是通过确定人类基因组的DNA序列和少数模型生物的基因组,了解人类的基因构成。
    • Sequencing of DNA is necessary for the analysis of genes and the genome.
      ::DNA的顺序对基因和基因组的分析是必要的。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. What is the difference between biotechnology and DNA technology?
      ::生物技术和DNA技术有什么区别?
    2. What are the goals of the Human Genome Project?
      ::人类基因组项目的目标是什么?
    3. Explain the concept of DNA sequencing and the chain-termination method.
      ::解释脱氧核糖核酸测序和链解密方法的概念。