Section outline

  • Types of Knowledge
    ::知识类型

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    Although philosophers may differ on how many different types of knowledge there are, they agree with P r opositional Knowledge , the claim to have knowledge of different things. What they may have in common, what makes them knowledge, then becomes the issue.
    ::尽管哲学家们可能在不同的知识类型上存在分歧,但他们同意“潜在知识 ” ( Propositional Knows ) , 声称对不同事物拥有知识。 他们的共同点是什么,什么使他们知道,然后成为问题。

    Here is one schema for different types of propositional knowledge.
    ::以下是一种关于不同类型理论知识的模式。

    • Logical
      ::逻辑逻辑
    • Semantic
      ::语义
    • Systemic
      ::系统系统
    • Empirical
      ::经验

    What are these about? Why make these distinctions?
    ::为什么要做这些区分?

    Consider that you probably would claim to know the following things.
    ::认为你可能声称知道以下事情。

    1. There are three sides to a triangle. The sum of their angles is 180 degrees.
      ::三角形有三边,它们角度的总和是180度。
    2. There is a computer in front of you right now.
      ::现在有一台电脑在你面前
    3. 23 + 11= 34
    4. A bachelor is an unmarried male.
      ::单身男子是未婚男子。
    5. If a is more than b, and b is more than c, then a is more than c.
      ::如果 a 大于 b, b 大于 c, 那么 a 大于 c。

    These sentences all make claims that can be determined to be either true or false.  They are sentences that express propositions. They are claims about which you can come to a judgment as to whether or not they are true. You probably know that they are true.  Now how is it that you come to know these things? Obviously, you come by this knowledge in different ways. This relates to the idea of the different types of knowledge. 
    ::这些句子,都是真实的,或虚假的。这些句子,是明白的,是明白的。这些句子,是你们所能判决的,是真实的。你们或许知道这些句子是真实的。你们怎么知道这些话呢?显然,你们是用不同的方式认识这些话的。这涉及到不同知识的概念。

    Logical  Way of Knowing      
    ::逻辑认知方式

    There is a knowledge that is the result of the understanding of the relationship of ideas to one another. There are the rules or laws of logic that permit claims to knowledge that are further statements of ideas consistent with the rules and the ideas already accepted.
    ::了解是理解思想之间相互关系的结果,有逻辑规则或法律允许声称了解知识,这些逻辑规则或法律是进一步阐述符合已经接受的规则和思想的思想。

    Here is another example where you do not need to know what I am talking about because you know the relationships involved.
    ::这里还有一个例子,你不需要知道我在说什么, 因为你知道其中涉及的关系。

    1. All gazintz are gazatz
      ::所有加辛兹都是加萨兹
    2. All gazatz are garingers
      ::所有的gazatz都是艺人
    3. Therfore, all gazintz are garingers.
      ::瑟福,所有加辛茨都是艺人

     You can claim to know that: if a and b are true, then c is true as well.  This you know by logic.
    ::你可以声称知道:如果a和b是真实的,c也是真实的。根据逻辑,这是你所知道的。

    Semantic Way of Knowing    
    ::语义学的认知方式

    There is knowledge that is the result of learning the meaning of words. Knowledge of words is knowledge of definitions. Such definitions are set in dictionaries. So bachelors are unmarried males. You know this. People acknowledge this. Are newborn baby boys bachelors?  Do people say to the new mother in the hospital nursery: "Oh what a beautiful bachelor you have there Ms. Jones!”?
    ::知识是学习语言含义的结果。 语言知识是定义知识。 这些定义在字典中设置。 所以单身者是未婚男性。 你知道这一点。 人们承认这一点。 新生的男孩是新生的男孩单身者吗? 人们是否对医院托儿所的新母亲说 : “ 琼斯女士,你那里有多么美丽的单身?”

    Systemic Way of Knowing        
    ::系统了解系统的方式

    There is knowledge of mathematics and geometry, which is the result of learning a system of words, or symbols and how they relate to one another and the rules of operating in that system and then any claims made that are consistent with those definitions and rules is called knowledge.
    ::数学和几何学知识是学习文字或符号系统、它们彼此的关系以及该系统的运作规则的结果,因此,与这些定义和规则相一致的任何主张被称为知识。

    Empirical  Way of Knowing
    ::实事实学的认知方法

    There is a knowledge that comes through our senses. This knowledge is empirical knowledge. Science is the best example of a method for ascertaining the accuracy of such knowledge.  Scientific knowledge is a result of the practice of the method: observation, abduction of a hypothesis, careful observation, refinement of hypothesis, deduction of test for hypothesis, testing and experimentation, confirmation or falsification of the hypothesis.
    ::科学是确定这种知识准确性的方法的最佳范例,科学知识是这种方法实践的结果:观察、欺骗假设、仔细观察、改进假设、推论、试验和实验、确认或伪造假设。

    What do these four types of knowledge have in common?  One of the most popular theories of knowledge of the 20th Century holds that knowledge does imply a belief.
    ::这四种知识有什么共同之处? 20世纪最受欢迎的知识理论之一认为,知识确实意味着一种信仰。

    Belief does not imply knowledge.  Wherever people claim to know that something is true they believe that it is so.  When people claim to believe that something is so they don’t always claim to know that it is so.
    ::信仰并不意味着知识。 每当人们声称知道某事是真实的,他们就会认为事实就是真实的。 当人们声称相信某事就是真实的,他们就不会总是声称知道事实就是真实的。

    What kind of a belief is knowledge.?
    ::什么样的信仰是知识?

    To begin with it must be true.  You cannot know something that is false.
    ::首先,它必须是真实的。你不能知道什么是虚假的。

    It must be true and you must claim to know it and it be true not by accident or coincidence but because there is evidence to support and enough to warrant or justify the claim to know.
    ::它必须是真实的,你必须声称知道它,它不是偶然或巧合的,而是真实的,因为有证据支持,并足以证明或证明声称知道是正当的。

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    • So, knowledge =  justified true belief
      ::所以,知识=正当的真信仰
    • Evidence is needed for justification
      ::证明理由需要证据

    Edmund Gettier's Justified True Belief
    ::Edmund Gettier的正义信仰

      Warranted true belief may not be knowledge if true by accident.
    ::所谓真实的信念,如果是偶然的,也可能不是知情的。

    Example
    ::示例示例示例示例

    On January 1, 2001 the claim is made: I know that the Giants are going to win the Super Bowl in 2001. It turns out that several weeks later they did win. Can I claim that I knew it on January 1st or was it just a lucky guess or a well-informed guess? How does a person gain the warrant or the justification for the belief? Well, depending on the type of belief that it is there are different kinds of warrants.
    ::2001年1月1日,有人声称:我知道巨人队将在2001年赢得超级碗赛,但数周后他们终于赢了。 我可以说,我在1月1日就知道了,或者这只是一个幸运的猜测或者一个知情的猜测?一个人如何获得逮捕令或者信仰的理由?这取决于人们如何相信它有不同种类的逮捕令。

      Modes of Warranty
    ::保证模式

    • Logical warrants are found in the rules of logic.  Follow them and the claim is warranted.
      ::在逻辑规则中可以找到逻辑授权书,遵循这些逻辑授权书,索赔要求是正当的。
    • Semantic warrants are found in the dictionaries. Use them, be consistent with them and the claim is warranted.
      ::在词典中可以找到语义授权书,使用它们,与它们一致,要求是正当的。
    • Systemic warrants are found within the system (math or geometry) follow the rules be consistent with the definitions and rules and the claim is warranted.
      ::在遵循与定义和规则相一致的规则的系统中(数学或几何学)发现系统授权令,索赔是正当的。
    • Empirical warrants are found with evidence. How is the evidence to be gathered, examined and evaluated? 
      ::如何收集、审查和评价证据?

    There are four types of beliefs when considering truth and warrants:
    ::在考虑真相和授权时,有四种信仰:

    1. Warranted true beliefs: this type is called knowledge
      ::假定的真实信仰:这种信仰被称为知识
    2. Warranted false beliefs: this type cannot exist at all.
      ::被证明的虚假信仰:这种类型的信仰根本不可能存在。
    3. Unwarranted true beliefs: these are lucky guesses or coincidences and not knowledge.
      ::毫无争议的真实信仰:这些是幸运的猜测或巧合,而不是知识。
    4. Unwarranted false beliefs: these are just wild unsupported claims or wishes that are not true .  
      ::毫无理由的虚假信念:这些只是荒谬的、没有根据的主张或愿望,并非事实。

    Why knowledge is justified true belief
    ::为什么知识是正当的 真正的信仰

    Justification warranty comes in degrees. How much evidence is needed in order to determine whether or not someone knows something or not? How much evidence is needed in order to determine whether or not someone has sufficient warrant to make a claim to know something or not? How much is needed depends on what is riding on the outcome of the claim. For simple matters of little consequence humans appear to accept fairly small amounts of evidence. For important matters much more evidence is needed.  
    ::要确定某人是否知道某事,需要多少证据?要确定某人是否有足够的授权来声称知道某事,还需要多少证据?需要多少证据取决于索赔结果。对于没有多大后果的简单事项,人类似乎接受相当少量的证据。对于重要事项,需要更多证据。

      Example:
    ::示例:

    How old is someone?  If someone claims to know how old J ohn Smith or Mary Doe is we probably accept the claim on their word if it is just gossip. However, if there were a $10 bet on it we would ask for evidence. We might go to the person and ask them to confirm the claim. If it were $100 we might want a driver’s license. If it were $1000 we might want a birth certificate. For $10, 000 we might want to go to the official registry and check the official documents ourselves.
    ::一个人多大了?如果有人声称知道约翰·史密斯(John Smith)或玛丽·多(Mary Doe)有多老了,我们或许会接受他们的说法,如果这只是八卦的话。然而,如果有10美元的赌注,我们就会要求提供证据。我们可能会去问他,请他们确认这个赌注。如果有100美元的驾照,我们也许需要一张驾照。如果有1 000美元的驾照,我们也许就需要一张出生证。10 000美元,我们也许可以自己去官方登记处查看官方文件。

    The highest consequences on claims to know: human life. At a criminal trial, a capital homicide case, what is the standard of proof? It is evidence that is convincing beyond a reasonable doubt. Not beyond all doubts. But beyond reasonable doubts, meaning beyond all doubting or questioning of the evidence that we have reason to doubt or question.
    ::声称知道的最大后果是:人的生命。在刑事审判中,在死刑杀人案中,什么是证据标准?证据是无可置疑的令人信服的证据。不是毫无疑问的。但除了合理怀疑之外,它意味着毫无疑问地怀疑或质疑我们有理由怀疑或质疑的证据。

    Scientists have their reputation riding on their claims to know things. The standard for the warrant in science is that their claims be supported by evidence that other scientists can examine, experiments that others can repeat and get the same result and equations that others can examine to check against errors.
    ::科学家的名声取决于他们对了解事物的主张。 科学搜查令的标准是他们的要求有其他科学家可以检查的证据、其他人可以重复的实验以及其他人可以检查的相同结果和等式作为证据,以检查错误。

    So, claims to know may be accepted depending on amounts of support that may vary in the type and amount depending on the type of claim that it is. However, to know something that which you claim to know must be true and truth does not have degrees: because a statement P is either true or it isn't.
    ::因此,对知道的声称可以被接受,这取决于支持的数量,这种支持的类型和数量可能不同,而这种支持的数量可能不同。然而,要知道一些你声称知道的东西必须是真实的,而真相没有程度:因为声明P要么是真实的,要么不是真实的。

    Read
    ::已读

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    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers Goal
    ::EPISD 信息化解决问题者目标

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    Philosophical Application
    ::哲学应用

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    EPISD Critical Knowledge and Creative Thinker Goal
    ::EPISD 关键知识和创意思维者目标

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      Suppose your friend claims to have answered a philosophical question. In listening to her answer, you are struck by how rational she is. She has followed the laws of thought (she doesn't contradict herself), she has made the fewest assumptions possible while giving a complete explanation ( Ockham's Razor ), and she is able to give complete answers to any of your questions (the principle of sufficient reason).
    ::假设你的朋友已经回答了一个哲学问题。你听她的回答时,你对她的理性感到惊讶。她遵循了思想定律(她并不自相矛盾),她完全解释(奥卡姆的Razor ) , 做了尽可能少的假设,她能够回答你的任何问题(充分理性的原则)。

    Is this enough to convince you that her answer is correct, or is it always possible to doubt the use of reasoning itself? Explain.
    ::这是否足以使你相信她的回答是正确的,或者总是有可能怀疑推理本身的用法?

    What more would you need to believe her and why?
    ::你还需要相信她什么? 为什么?

    Vocabulary
    ::词汇表

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    EPISD Effective Bilingual Education Goal
    ::EPISD 有效双语教育目标