章节大纲

  • lesson content

    All in the Family
    ::全体家庭

    This family of chimpanzees is part of our own family, the  Hominidae. This  is the taxon within the primate order in which our is placed, and it includes only our closest relatives within the . Besides chimpanzees, which other primates are part of the Hominidae? When did the Hominidae  first evolve? And what evolutionary events occurred within the Hominidae leading to our own genus , Homo ? You'll find answers to these questions when you read this concept.
    ::黑猩猩家族是我们家族的一分子,即霍米尼达家族。这是我们被安置的灵长类动物的分类,它只包括我们最亲近的亲戚。除了黑猩猩之外,其他的灵长类动物是霍米尼达家族的一部分?什么是霍米尼达家族第一次进化的?在霍米尼达家族中发生了什么进化事件,导致我们自己的基因,同性?当你阅读这个概念时,你会找到这些问题的答案。

    Hominidae Phylogeny
    ::Hominidae Phylgengeny 基因组

    The human family, called  the Hominidae, i s  highlighted in yellow in the phylogenetic tree . The Hominidae are also called great apes. They are part of the ape superfamily,  Hominoidea,  which also includes the family Hylobatidae ( or gibbons), also known as lesser apes. All members of the Hominoidea are commonly called hominoids. The phylogenetic tree also shows how taxa within the Hominidae family are classified according to their evolutionary history. As you can see from the tree, there are two subfamilies in the Hominidae , called  the Ponginae and the Homininae.  The  Ponginae  has just one genus, Pongo  (orangutans). The Homininae  is further subdivided into tribes. The tribe is a taxon between the subfamily and genus. The tribes of Homininae include the Gorillini and   Hominini . The Gorillini has a single genus, Gorilla  (gorillas) .  The Hominini has two genera: Pan ( chimpanzees) and Homo  (humans). 
    ::人类家庭称为Hominoidae, 在植物遗传树中的黄色树中突出称为Hominoidae。Hominoidee也被称为巨猿。它们是猿超级家庭Hominoidea的一部分,它包括Hylobatidae(或gibbons)家庭,也称为小猩猩。Hominoidea的所有成员通常都被称为类动物。植物遗传树还显示霍米尼代人家庭内的分类是如何按其进化史分类的。从树上可以看到,霍米尼代人有2个亚类动物,称为Ponginae和Homininee。Ponginae只有1个基因,Pongo(orangutans),Hominine(homininae)进一步细分为部落。Hominine部落是亚类家庭与基因之间的一个分类。Hominine部落包括Gorillininini和Hominini部落。Gorillini部落有1个单一基因,Gorolilla(golorillas)和Homini(Homini)有2个基因。Homini(Panchima)和Gomani)。Homini(Panchi)有2个基因(Panzi)。

    This phylogenetic tree shows the evolutionary classification of the human family Hominidae within the superfamily Hominoidea.
    ::这棵植物基因树显示了人类家庭Hominidee在超级家庭Hominoidea的进化分类。

    Hominidae Terminology
    ::Hominidae 名词术语

    Members of the Hominidae family are generally referred to as hominids. T he term hominid applies to all of the great apes: orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans. It is important to note that in the past, the term hominid was used to refer only to humans and their extinct ancestors after they diverged from their common ancestor with chimpanzees (Pan).  Instead of hominid, the term hominin  is  now used to refer to humans and these extinct ancestors. The term human is used to refer to any member of the genus Homo. The only living species of Homo  is our own species,  Homo sapiens , but there are also several extinct species in the  Homo genus. These extinct members of our genus are also called humans.
    ::Hominidae家族的成员一般称为hominids, hominid一词适用于所有巨猿:猩猩、大猩猩、黑猩猩、黑猩猩和人类,必须指出,在过去,hominid一词仅指人类及其与黑猩猩(Pan)脱离共同祖先后灭绝的祖先;现在,hominin一词指人类和这些灭绝的祖先;人类一词指同族的任何成员;只有同族的物种,即同族的物种,但也指同族中的一些灭绝的物种;这些我们同族的灭绝成员也被称为人类。

    Hominid Traits
    ::胡密底陷阱

    Hominids are large primates that do not have tails. They range in size from bonobos (pygmy chimpanzees), which weigh 30 to 40 kg (66 to 88 lb), to gorillas, which may weigh as much in the wild as 180 kg (almost 400 lb). Both a bonobo and a gorilla are pictured . In all great apes, adult males are, on average, larger and stronger than adult females, and they may also differ in their coloration. However, the degree of sexual dimorphism (the difference between the sexes )  varies greatly between  species. It tends to be greatest in gorillas and least in humans. With the exception of humans, who are bipedal (walk on two legs), most living species of great apes are predominantly quadrupedal (walk on four legs). All of them, however, can walk bipedally for short distances, and can use their hands for gathering food or nesting materials, and — in some cases — to use tools.
    ::土豆是没有尾巴的大型灵长类动物,大小不一,从30至40公斤(66至88磅)的棕榈黑猩猩(pigmy chimpezees),到大猩猩,大猩猩在野外的重量可能高达180公斤(约400磅),大猩猩和大猩猩都有相照。在所有大猩猩中,成年雄性平均比成年雌性大、大、强,颜色也各不相同,但不同物种的性畸形程度(两性之间的差异)差别很大,大猩猩往往最大,人类则最少。除了人类(双腿行走)外,大多数大猩猩的物种主要有四肢(四腿行走),但它们都可以在短距离内双行走,用手收集食物或筑巢材料,有时甚至可以使用工具。

    lesson content

    This bonobo is a juvenile, but even as an adult, he will be one of the smallest of the great apes.
    ::这只公仔是少年 但即使成年 他也会是大猩猩中最小的猿类之一

    Gorillas like this one are the largest of the great apes.
    ::像这样的大猩猩是大猩猩中最大的

    Most species of great apes are omnivorous, meaning they eat a variety of both plant and foods. Virtually all of them prefer to eat fruit , but humans are an exception. For the last several thousand years, most humans have eaten mainly cereals and other starchy foods, and much of the food has been cooked or processed in other ways to make it easier to eat. This is reflected in the small size of human teeth and jaws. They are markedly smaller relative to their overall body size than the teeth of other great apes (such as chimpanzees), as shown in the figure . The figure also shows how much larger the human brain is than the brain of the chimpanzee.
    ::大多数巨猿物种都是无孔不入的,这意味着它们食用各种植物和食物。几乎所有它们都喜欢吃水果,但人类却是一个例外。在过去的几千年里,大多数人类主要食用谷物和其他恒星类食物,大部分食物都是以其他方式煮熟或加工的,以方便食用。这体现在人类牙齿和下巴的大小很小。它们与其他大猩猩(如黑猩猩)的牙齿相比,其整体体积明显小得多。图中还显示,人类大脑比黑猩猩的大脑大得多。

    The human (top) brain is much larger and the teeth much smaller than those of the chimpanzee (bottom).
    ::人类(顶部)大脑大得多,牙齿比黑猩猩(底部)的牙齿小得多。

    Gestation (pregnancy) in great apes lasts between eight and nine months and results in the birth of a single offspring or, rarely, twins or higher order multiples. Females generally give birth only once every few years, and there is no distinct breeding season.  The young are born helpless, and they must be taken care of for a long period of time by adults, mainly the mother. Compared with most other mammals , great apes have a remarkably long period of nursing before weaning, and also a long period of adolescence . They do not become sexually mature until they are between eight and 13 years of age (or even older in humans). As a result, there is  a long period of time during which the young can learn from the adults in their social group.
    ::巨猿的孕期(孕期)持续8至9个月,导致单一后代或极少的双胞胎或更高层次的多胞胎的出生; 女性通常每隔几年生育一次,而且没有明显的育种季节; 年轻人出生无助,必须由成年人(主要是母亲)长期照顾,与大多数其他哺乳动物相比,大猩猩在断奶前有相当长的哺乳期,还有很长的青春期; 只有在8至13岁(或者甚至更年长的人类)之间,她们才具有性成熟性; 因此,在很长的一段时间里,年轻人可以向社会中的成年人学习。

    Major Events in Hominid Evolution
    ::Hominid 演进中的主要事件

    By the middle of the Miocene about 20 million years ago, there was a wide diversity of ancestral apes across Africa and the Mediterranean basin. An example was Dryopithecus, shown in the artist's reconstruction on the Uzbekistan stamp pictured . This ape or a similar one  from around the same time period was probably ancestral to the hominoids (both great apes and lesser apes). Based on molecular evidence , the hylobatids (lesser apes) probably diverged from their common ancestor with the hominids (great apes) about 15 million years ago. However, there are no that clearly document this branching off of the lesser apes from the line leading to the hominids.
    ::大约2 000万年前,非洲和地中海盆地的米奥辛人中间,非洲和地中海盆地的祖先猿种类繁多,其中一个例子就是Dryopithecus,这在艺术家在乌兹别克斯坦邮票上的重建中表现出来。这个猿类或类似的猿类大约在同一时间段里可能是人类的祖先(大猩猩和较弱猿类)。根据分子证据,Hylobatids(较弱猿类)可能与大约1 500万年前的人类猿(大猩猩)的祖先不同。然而,没有清楚的文件可以证明这种从导致人类猴的线上的较小猿类的分支。

    Modern Uzbekistan is one site where Dryopithecus fossils from the middle Miocene have been found.
    ::现今的乌兹别克斯坦是发现来自中米辛的Dryopithecus化石的地方。

    About 12 to 13 million years ago, the orangutan lineage separated from the ancestral hominid line. Fossils from possible orangutan ancestors dating to about this time have been found in India and Turkey. 
    ::大约在1200万到1300万年前,印度和土耳其就发现了与祖传的红毛线分离的红毛系。 大约在这一时期,印度和土耳其已经发现了可能与红毛祖先分离的红毛系。

    Molecular evidence suggests that between eight million and ten million years ago, the gorilla lineage split off from the line leading to humans and chimpanzees. Then, about six million years ago  —  again, according to molecular data   —  the chimpanzee lineage branched off from the human line. Unfortunately, fossil evidence for these two major evolutionary events is still very limited.
    ::分子证据表明,在800万到1 000万年前,大猩猩的血缘从人类和黑猩猩的直线上分裂开来。 然后,大约600万年前 — — 根据分子数据 — — 黑猩猩的直线从人类的直线上分离开来。 不幸的是,这两个重大进化事件的化石证据仍然非常有限。

    The earliest true hominins, or members of the human lineage, probably evolved around four or five million years ago. You can read much more about this recent period of hominid evolution in the concept  Early Hominin Evolution.
    ::最早的真正恒星,或者说人类族系的成员,大概是在四、五百万年前演变的。你可以更多地读到关于早期人类进化概念中最近人类进化的潮流演变时期的更多信息。

    Hominids Today
    ::今日的土族

    There are currently seven living species in the four modern genera of the hominid family. The seven species are listed in the table , along with their current estimated numbers in the wild.
    ::目前,有7种生物物种存在于人类家族的4个现代基因组中。 7种物种及其目前在野外的估计数量都列在表中。

    Species Numbers of the Great Apes
    Species Estimated Number
    Sumatran Orangutan

    6,667

    Bornean Orangutan

    61,234

    Western Gorilla

    200,000

    Eastern Gorilla

    6,000

    Common Chimpanzee

    100,000

    Bonobo

    10,000

    Human

    7,300,000,000

    Except for the human species, all extant (living) species of great apes are found in Africa or Asia. In both Africa and Asia, the six nonhuman species of great apes are at risk of extinction , primarily because of the huge number of human great apes. Human actions are destroying the forest habitats of their nonhuman great ape relatives. F orests are being destroyed at a rapid pace for farming, logging, and mining. In some places, civil wars make efforts next to impossible. Commercial hunting of great apes for bushmeat has become a serious problem, and such as Ebola also threaten some species.
    ::除人类物种外,非洲或亚洲都发现了所有大型类人猿的现存(生物)物种。在非洲和亚洲,六种非人类类人猿面临灭绝的危险,这六种非人类类人猿主要因为人类巨猿数量巨大而濒临灭绝。人类行动正在摧毁其非人类类人猿亲属的森林生境。森林正在以快速的速度被破坏,用于耕作、伐木和采矿。在有些地方,内战几乎无法进行。以商业方式捕猎巨猿作为灌木类动物已成为一个严重问题,埃博拉也威胁着某些物种。

    • The two orangutan species (Sumatran and Bornean orangutans) are either endangered or critically endangered. Their forest habitats in Indonesia and Malaysia are rapidly shrinking, putting the future of Asia's only great apes at serious risk.
      ::两种大猩猩物种(Sumatran和Bornan angutans)要么濒危,要么濒临严重濒危。 它们位于印度尼西亚和马来西亚的森林生境正在迅速萎缩,使亚洲唯一大猩猩的未来面临严重危险。
    • The two gorilla species (western and eastern gorillas) are also either endangered or critically endangered. They are threatened by hunting for bushmeat, habitat loss , wildlife trade, and infectious diseases.
      ::这两个大猩猩物种(西部和东部大猩猩)也面临濒危或严重濒危。 它们受到狩猎灌木、栖息地损失、野生动物贸易和传染病的威胁。
    • The two species of chimpanzees (common chimpanzees and bonobos) are threatened or endangered. Common chimpanzees have already disappeared from four African countries and are nearing extinction in many others. Deforestation and commercial hunting for bushmeat are taking a huge toll on most of their . Bonobos live only in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where civil unrest and increasing poverty pose serious threats to their survival. C ombined with a slow rate of , t heir low numbers make them especially vulnerable to habitat loss and hunting.
      ::黑猩猩的两种物种(黑猩猩和小黑猩猩)受到威胁或濒危;普通黑猩猩已经从四个非洲国家消失,在许多其他非洲国家濒临灭绝;砍伐森林和商业性捕猎灌木动物正在给大部分黑猩猩带来巨大损失。 波诺波斯人只生活在刚果民主共和国,那里的内乱和日益加剧的贫困对其生存构成严重威胁。 再加上缓慢的速度,它们的低数量使他们特别容易受到栖息地损失和狩猎的伤害。

    Feature: Human Biology in the News
    ::特著:《新闻》中的人类生物学

    Infectious diseases that have received a lot of media coverage over recent decades — such as (human virus), flu, and Ebola — are zoonoses. A zoonosis is a nonhuman animal disease that can be transmitted to humans. HIV, for example, originated in African simian primates, in whom the is called simian immunodeficiency virus (or SIV). It was transmitted from primates to humans at some point in the last century. Thereafter, it began to spread from one human being to another. The spread of diseases from animals to humans generally becomes more common as people impinge upon natural habitats and have more contact with animals. A recent article in the journal Neglected Tropical Diseases , which was also picked up by a number of popular media outlets,  reported that the opposite may also occur. Human infections can be transmitted from humans to nonhuman species. In fact, according to the article, this is happening in African primate populations and may be contributing to their declining numbers.
    ::近几十年来,媒体大量报道传染病——例如(人类病毒)、流感和埃博拉——是动物传染病。动物传染病是一种非人类动物疾病,可以传染给人类。例如,艾滋病毒起源于非洲西米亚灵长类动物,在上个世纪的某个时候,它从灵长类传染给人类。随后,它开始从一个人传播到另一个人。随着人们对自然生境的侵扰和与动物的更多接触,动物疾病从动物传播到人类的情况普遍变得更为普遍。最近在《被忽视热带疾病》杂志上发表的一篇文章也被一些受欢迎的媒体所摘取,其中报道说,也可能发生相反的情况。人类感染可以从人类传染给非人类物种。事实上,根据文章,这发生在非洲原始人群中,并且可能助长其数量下降。

    The article reports on a study conducted in and near the Gombe National Park in Tanzania, which was made famous by the ground-breaking research of primatologist Jane Goodall. The researchers investigated the possible presence of a common cause of human diarrhea in nonhuman primates, the single-celled parasite  Cryptosporidium.  They collected and analyzed hundreds of stool samples from chimpanzees in the park and from people living near the park. They found that many of the chimpanzees had been infected with the parasite , which was also present in the nearby . The researchers hypothesized that the chimpanzees could have become infected when they left the park to raid neighboring farm fields, where they may have come into contact with human sewage.
    ::这篇文章报导了在坦桑尼亚贡贝国家公园内和附近进行的一项研究,该研究因对灵长类动物Jane Goodall的开拓性研究而出名。研究人员调查了非人类灵长类动物(单细胞寄生虫加密寄生虫)中可能存在人类腹泻的共同原因。他们收集并分析了公园黑猩猩和公园附近居民的数百个凳子样本。他们发现许多黑猩猩感染了寄生虫,而寄生虫也存在于附近。研究人员推测,当这些黑猩猩离开公园突袭邻近农田时,他们可能感染了这些黑猩猩,在那里他们可能接触了人类污水。

    The chimpanzee population in Gombe Park numbered just 100 animals in 2015, down from about 150 animals in 1995. The researchers concluded that the "spillover" over of the Cryptosporidium parasite from humans to primates in the park may be a contributing factor. To make matters worse, as many as 16 percent of Gombe Park chimpanzees are infected with SIV, which reduces their immune systems' ability to fight infections. In immune-compromised chimpanzees, the diarrheal disease caused by Cryptosporidium  would be more severe — perhaps even fatal.
    ::2015年,贡贝公园的黑猩猩人口从1995年的大约150只动物减少到2015年的100只,而1995年的大约150只。 研究人员得出结论说,从人类到公园的灵长类动物的密码寄生虫的“溢出”可能是一个促成因素。 更糟糕的是,多达16%的冈贝公园黑猩猩感染了SIV,这降低了他们的免疫系统抵抗感染的能力。 在免疫杂乱的黑猩猩中,由密码化的黑猩猩引起的腹泻疾病会更加严重 — — 甚至致命。

    Primate conservation efforts to date have focused mainly on restricting hunting and maintaining habitats of threatened species. The results of the Gombe Park study suggest that attention also needs to be paid  to the prevention of  the spread of infectious diseases from human to nonhuman primate populations.
    ::迄今为止,保护原始物种的努力主要集中在限制狩猎和维持受威胁物种的栖息地,Gombe公园研究的结果表明,还需要注意防止传染病从人类传播到非人类灵长类人群。

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Within the primate order, humans are placed in the Hominidae family, which are commonly called great apes. The term hominid is used to refer to any member of the Hominidae family.
      ::在灵长类中,人类被安置在Hominidae家族中,该家族通常被称为大猩猩,“hominid”一词用来指Hominidae家族的任何成员。
    • Living hominids are large primates that lack a tail. In addition to humans, they include gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans. All hominid species exhibit some degree of sexual dimorphism. Most species are omnivorous. Hominids have a relatively long period of maturation, during which they can learn from adults.
      ::活的人类是没有尾巴的大型灵长类动物。 除了人类之外,它们还包括大猩猩、黑猩猩和猩猩。所有有色人种都表现出某种程度的性畸形。大多数物种都是无脊椎动物。人类有相当长的成熟期,可以向成年人学习。
    • An extinct ape in the genus Dryopithecus, which lived about 20 million years ago, was probably the ancestor of today's Hominoidea  (great and lesser apes). The divergence of the great and lesser apes may have occurred about 15 million years ago.
      ::生活在大约2000万年前的Dryopithecus人猿中,一个已经灭绝的猿类可能是今天的Hominoidea(大猩猩和小猩猩)的祖先。 大猩猩和小猩猩的分裂可能发生在大约1500万年前。
    • Based on molecular data, the orangutan lineage separated from the ancestral hominid line about 12 to 13 million years ago, the gorilla lineage split off from the chimpanzee/human line about eight million years ago, and the chimpanzee and human lineages diverged about six million years ago.
      ::根据分子数据,猩猩与大约1200万至1300万年前的祖先小猩猩线分离,大猩猩线与大约800万年前的黑猩猩/人类线分离,黑猩猩和人类系在大约600万年前出现差异。
    • Except for the human species, all living species of hominids are found in Africa or Asia, and all of them are at risk of extinction. Human activities — including habitat destruction, commercial hunting, and the transmission of infectious diseases from humans to nonhuman primates  —  are the main cause of the demise of the other great apes. 
      ::除人类之外,非洲或亚洲都发现了所有有生命的人类物种,它们都面临灭绝的危险,人类活动——包括生境破坏、商业狩猎、传染病从人类传染给非人类灵长类动物——是其他巨猿消亡的主要原因。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. Describe the phylogeny of the living Hominidae.
    ::1. 描述活的Hominidae的植物特征。

    2. Distinguish among the following terms: hominoid, hominid, hominin, and human.
    ::2. 区别于以下术语:嗜血类、嗜血类、嗜血类和人。

    3. Compare and contrast the diets of modern human and nonhuman great apes. Describe how their dental traits relate to their differing diets. 
    ::3. 比较和比较现代人类和非人类巨猿的饮食,说明他们的牙齿特征与不同饮食的关系。

    4. Outline the major evolutionary events that occurred within the Hominidae.
    ::4. 概述在霍米尼达内发生的重大演进事件。

    5. Identify the living genera and species of hominids.
    ::5. 确定活基因组和人种。

    6. Explain how human actions are threatening the continued existence of nonhuman great apes.
    ::6. 解释人类行动如何威胁非人类巨猿的继续存在。

    7.Which of the following are not in the same family as humans?
    ::7. 下列哪些人与人类不同,在同一个家庭中?

    a. gorillas
    ::a. 大猩猩

    b. orangutans
    ::b. 猩猩

    c. gibbons
    ::c.

    d. none of the above
    ::d. 以上无任何内容

     

    8. True or False:  Humans are in the same tribe as chimpanzees.
    ::8. 真实或假:人类与黑猩猩同属一个部落。

     

    9. True or False:  The only humans to ever have existed are Homo sapiens .
    ::9. 真理或假:人类中唯一存在的人是智人。

     

    10. True or False:  Humans are the only great apes that ever walk on two feet.
    ::10. 真实或假:人类是唯一双脚行走的巨猿。

     

    11. Do chimpanzees have tails? Explain how you figured this out based on  the information presented in this concept.
    ::11. 黑猩猩有尾巴吗? 解释一下你是如何根据这一概念所提供的信息来理解这一点的。

     

    12. What is the significance of the fact that young great apes are cared for by adults for a long period of time?
    ::12. 长时期由成人照料大猩猩这一事实的意义何在?

     

    13. Explain how the gestation period, frequency of reproduction, and the number of offspring that great apes typically have in each pregnancy contribute to their dwindling numbers.
    ::13. 解释妊娠期、生殖频率以及大猩猩在每次怀孕中通常生育的后代数量是如何造成其数量减少的。

     

    14. Which living hominids are in the same genus as humans?
    ::14. 哪些活的人类与人类同属一类?

    a. gorillas
    ::a. 大猩猩

    b. chimpanzees
    ::b. 黑猩猩

    c. bonobos
    ::c. 公益社

    d. none of the above
    ::d. 以上无任何内容

    Explore More
    ::探索更多

    Check out this video of  b onobos con soling their peers:
    ::看着这段Bullobos安慰同龄人的视频:

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    Watch this video to learn more about threats that many chimpanzees face:
    ::更多了解许多黑猩猩面临的威胁: