章节大纲

  • lesson content

    How are these identified?
    ::如何确定这些特征?

    Many insects may look similar, but they are distinct. They are separated and classified due to their uniqueness. The classification of is an extremely important aspect of biology .
    ::许多昆虫可能看起来相似,但它们是不同的,它们因其独特性而被分离和分类,分类是生物学的一个极为重要的方面。

    The Linnaean System of Classification
    ::林内人分类制度

    The most influential classification system was developed by Carolus Linnaeus. In fact, all modern classification systems have their in Linnaeus’ system. Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist who lived during the 1700s. He is known as the "father of taxonomy ." Linnaeus tried to describe and classify the entire known natural world. In 1735, he published his classification system in a work called Systema Naturae ("System of Nature").
    ::最有影响力的分类体系是由卡罗尔斯·林内乌斯开发的。 事实上,所有现代分类体系都存在于林内乌斯的体系中。 林内乌斯是瑞典植物学家,生活在1700年代。 他被称为“分类学之父 ” 。 林内乌斯试图描述和分类整个已知的自然世界。 1735年,他在名为“自然系统”的著作中公布了自己的分类体系。

      

     

    Linnaean taxonomy divides all of nature into three kingdoms: , vegetable (or plant), and mineral (The mineral does not include living organisms , so it is not discussed any further here.). Both plant and animal kingdoms are subdivided into smaller and smaller categories of organisms. An updated version of Linnaean taxonomy is shown in  Figure .
    ::Linnaean分类学将所有自然都分为三个王国:植物(或植物)和矿物(矿物不包括活生物体,因此此处不作进一步讨论)。植物和动物王国被细分为较小和较小的生物类别。Linnaean分类学的最新版本见图 。

    Linnaean Classification System
    ::林内人分类制度

    lesson content

    This is an updated version of Linnaeus’ original classification system. In this classification system, organisms are classified into a hierarchy of taxa. First, all organisms are divided into kingdoms. Further subdivisions place organisms in smaller, more exclusive taxa, all the way down to the level of the species.
    ::这是Linnaeus原始分类制度的更新版。 在这个分类制度中,生物被分为分类分类等级。 首先,所有生物都分为王国。 进一步的细分将生物分成较小、更专有的分类,一直到物种水平。

    The classification in  Figure includes a few more taxa than Linnaeus identified. However, it follows the same general plan as Linnaeus’ original taxonomy. The taxa are as follows below:
    ::图中的分类包括比林内乌斯所查明的多几个分类群,不过,它遵循与林内乌斯原分类组相同的总计划。

    • Kingdom —This is the highest taxon in Linnaean taxonomy, representing major divisions of organisms. Kingdoms of organisms include the plant and animal kingdoms.
      ::王国——这是林奈人分类学中最高的税种,代表着生物的主要分界,生物的王国包括动植物王国。
    • Phylum (plural, phyla )—This taxon is a division of a kingdom. Phyla in the animal kingdom include (animals with an internal skeleton) and (animals with an external skeleton).
      ::植物类(Phylum)——这个动物类(Phyla)是一个王国的分割。动物类(Phyla)包括动物类(有内骨的动物)和(有外骨的动物类)。
    • Class —This taxon is a division of a phylum. Classes in the chordate phylum include mammals and .
      ::类——这个分类表是植物类的分类。在植物类中,植物类包括哺乳动物和哺乳动物。
    • Order —This taxon is a division of a class. Orders in the mammal class include rodents and .
      ::命令——这个分类是分级的,哺乳动物类的命令包括鼠类和.。
    • Family —This taxon is a division of an order. Families in the primate order include hominids (apes and humans) and hylobatids (gibbons).
      ::家庭——这个分类是命令的划分,按灵长类顺序排列的家庭包括人种(猿类和人种)和hylobatids(象形人)。
    • Genus —This taxon is a division of a family. Genera in the hominid family include Homo (humans) and Pan (chimpanzees).
      ::Genus-这个分类库是一家之分,本族家庭中的Genera包括同性(人)和Pan(黑猩猩)。
    • Species —This taxon is below the genus and the lowest taxon in Linnaeus’ system. Species in the Pan genus include Pan troglodytes (common chimpanzees) and Pan paniscus (Bonobos).
      ::物种 — — 这个分类表低于林内乌斯系统的基因和最低的分类表。 潘内乌斯的物种包括黑猩猩(Pan Troglodytes ) 、 黑猩猩(Pan Pan Pan Pan Pan Pan Pan Pan Pan Pan Paniscus ) 、 黑猩猩(Bonobos ) 、 黑猩猩(Pan Pan Pan Pan Pan Paniscus ) 、 黑猩猩(Bonobos ) 、 黑猩猩(Ban Pan Pan Pan Pan Pan Paniscus ) 。

    To remember the order of the taxa in Linnaean taxonomy, it may help to learn a mnemonic: a sentence to help remember a list, in which the words begin with the same letters as the taxa: k, p, c, o, f, g, and s. One sentence you could use is King Philip Came Over For Green Sugar or Kings Play Chess On Fine Grain Sand.
    ::要记住林奈恩分类学分类组的顺序, 学习一个记忆力: 帮助记住一个列表的句子, 在列表中, 单词以与分类组相同的字母开头 : k, p, c, o, f, g, s. 您可以使用 Philip 国王为绿色糖而来, 或者在颗粒沙上玩棋 。

    Table shows the classification of the human species. The table also lists some of the physical traits that are the basis of the classification. For example, humans are members of the animal kingdom. Animals are organisms capable of independent movement . Within the animal kingdom, humans belong to the mammal class. Mammals are animals that have milk glands and either fur or hair. At each lower taxon, additional physical traits further narrow the group to which humans belong. The final grouping, the species sapiens (as in Homo sapiens ), includes only organisms that have all of the traits listed in the table.
    ::表格显示了人类物种的分类。表格中还列出了作为分类基础的一些物理特征。例如,人类是动物王国的成员。动物是能够独立运动的有机体。在动物王国中,人类属于哺乳类。哺乳动物是具有乳腺和毛毛或毛发的动物。在每下一层分类中,额外的物理特征进一步缩小了人类所属的类别。最后一组中,树皮(如人猿中)只包括具有表中所列所有特性的生物。

    Taxon Name Example Traits*
    Kingdom Animal Organisms capable of moving on their own.
    Phylum Chordate Animals with a notochord (flexible rod that supports the body - the vertebral column in humans).
    Class Mammal Chordates with milk glands and either fur or hair.
    Order Primate Mammals with collar and grasping hands with fingers.
    Family Hominid Primates with three-dimensional and relatively flat faces.
    Genus Homo Hominids with upright posture and large brains.
    Species sapiens Members of the genus Homo with a high forehead and thin skull bones.

    *Only one or two traits per taxon are listed in the table as examples. Additional traits may be needed to properly classify species.
    ::* 表中仅列出每个分类栏的一到两个特性作为例子,可能需要其他特性来适当分类物种。

    Although Linnaeus grouped organisms according to their physical similarities, he made no claims about relationships between similar species. Linnaeus lived a century before Charles Darwin , so the theory of evolution had not yet been developed. Darwin explained how evolution, or changes in species over time, can explain the diversity of organisms (see the Evolution concepts). In contrast, Linnaeus (like Aristotle before him) thought each species was an unchanging "ideal type." Individual organisms that differed from the species’ ideal type were considered deviant and imperfect.
    ::虽然林内乌斯根据物理上的相似性对生物进行分类,但他并没有对相似物种之间的关系提出主张。林内乌斯生活在查尔斯·达尔文之前一个世纪,因此进化理论尚未形成。 达尔文解释了进化或物种随时间变化如何解释生物的多样性(见进化概念 ) 。 相反,林内乌斯(和他之前的亚里士多德一样)认为每个物种都是不变的“理想类型 ” 。 与物种理想类型不同的个体有机体被视为畸形和不完善。

    Binomial Nomenclature
    ::二进制名词

    The single greatest contribution that Linnaeus made to science is his method of naming species. This method, called binomial nomenclature , gives each species a unique, two-word name (also called a scientific or Latin name). Just like we have a first and last name, organisms have a distinguishable two word name as well. The two words in the name are the genus name and the species name. For example, the human species is uniquely identified by both its genus and species names as Homo sapiens. No other species has this name.
    ::Linnaeus对科学作出的最大贡献就是他命名物种的方法。这个方法叫做二元命名法,给每个物种一个独特的、两字的名称(也称为科学名称或拉丁名称 ) 。 就像我们有一个名和姓一样, 生物也有一个可区分的两个字名。 名称中的两个字是基因名称和物种名称。 例如, 人类物种被其基因名称和物种名称分别确定为人猿。 没有其它物种有这个名称 。

    Both words in a scientific name are Latin words or words that have been given Latin endings. The genus name is always written first and starts with an upper-case letter. The species name is always written second and starts with a lower-case letter. Both names are written in italics.
    ::科学名中的这两个词都是拉丁字母或拉丁结尾的拉丁字母。 genus 名称总是先写, 开头是大写字母。 物种名称总是第二写, 开头是小写字母。 两个名称都用斜体字写 。

    As another example, consider the group of organisms called Panthera . This is a genus in the cat family. It consists of all large cats that are able to roar. Within the genus Panthera , there are four different species that differ from one another in several ways. One obvious way they differ is in the markings on their fur. As shown in Figure , Panthera leo (lion species) has solid-colored fur, Panthera tigris (tiger species) has striped fur, and the other two Panthera species have fur with different types of spots. As this example shows, the genus name Panthera narrows a given cat’s classification to big cats that roar. Adding the species name limits it to a single species of cat within this genus.
    ::举另一个例子,请考虑称为“豹状”的有机体组。这是猫族中的一种基因。它由能够咆哮的所有大型猫组成。在豹状中,有四种不同的物种不同,有几种不同的方式。其中一种明显不同的方式是毛皮上的标记。如图所示,豹状(豹状)有固体色毛皮,Panthera tigris(虎状物种)有毛皮条,其他两种豹状物种有不同种类的毛皮。如这个例子所示,“豹状动物”的名称将给猫的分类范围缩小到大猫类,而大猫则有叫。加上物种的名称,将它限定为这个基因内的单一猫种。

    lesson content

    Species in the Genus Panthera . All four species in the Panthera genus are similar, but each is a unique type of organism, clearly identified by its combined genus and species name.
    ::Genus Panthera 物种。 Panthera 物种中所有四种物种都相似,但每种生物都是独特的生物类型,以其基因和物种的混合名称加以明确识别。

    Why is Linnaeus’ method of naming organisms so important? Before Linnaeus introduced his method, naming practices were not standardized. Some names were used to refer to more than one species. Conversely, the same species often had more than one name. In addition, a name could be very long, consisting of a string of descriptive words. For example, at one time, common wild roses were named Rosa sylvestris alba cum rubore folio glabro. Names such as this were obviously cumbersome to use and hard to remember.
    ::林内乌斯命名生物的方法为何如此重要? 在林内乌斯引入其命名方法之前,命名方法没有标准化。 某些名称被用来指一个以上的物种。 相反,同一物种往往有一个以上的名称。 此外,名称可能很长,由一系列描述性词组成。 例如,曾经有一次,常见野生玫瑰被命名为罗莎·西尔维斯特里斯·阿尔巴(Rosa Sylvestris alba ) 和 rubore folio glabro。 类似的名字显然很难用,也很难记住。

    For all these reasons, there was not a simple, universal name by which a species could always be identified. This led to a great deal of confusion and misunderstanding, especially as more and more species were discovered. Linnaeus changed all that by giving each species a unique and unchanging two-word name. Linnaeus’s method of naming organisms was soon widely accepted and is still used today.
    ::基于所有这些原因,我们没有一个简单、通用的名称可以永远识别物种。 这导致了大量的混乱和误解,特别是随着越来越多的物种被发现。 林瑙斯改变了所有这一切,给每个物种一个独特的、不变的两字名称。 林瑙斯命名生物的方法很快被广泛接受,今天仍然被使用。

    Changes in the Linnaean System
    ::Linnaean 系统的变化

    Linnaean taxonomy has been revised considerably since it was introduced in 1735. One reason revisions have been needed is that many new organisms have been discovered since Linnaeus’ time. Another reason is that scientists started classifying organisms on the basis of evolutionary relationships rather than solely on the basis of similarities in physical traits.
    ::自1735年引入Linnaean分类学以来,已经做了大量修改。 需要修改的原因之一是自林奈乌斯时代以来发现了许多新生物。 另一个原因是科学家开始根据进化关系而不是仅仅根据物理特征的相似性对生物进行分类。

    Scientists have had to add several new taxa to the original Linnaean taxonomy in order to accommodate new knowledge of organisms and their evolutionary relationships. Examples of added taxa include the subphylum , superfamily , and .
    ::科学家不得不在最初的林内亚生物分类学中增加几个新的分类学,以适应关于生物及其进化关系的新知识。 增加分类学的例子包括亚植物、超级家庭以及 。

    • A subphylum is a division of a phylum that is higher than the class. An example of a subphylum is Vertebrates (animals with a backbone). It is a subphylum of the Chordate phylum (animals with a notochord).
      ::亚植物素是高于该类的植物素的分裂。亚植物素的一个例子是Vertebrates(有脊椎的动物),它是Chorate fyluum的亚植物素(有鼻孔的动物)。
    • A superfamily is a taxon that groups together related families but is lower than the order. An example of a superfamily is Hominoids (apes). This superfamily consists of the Hominid family (gorillas, chimps, and humans) and the Hylobatid family (gibbons). Figure shows species from both of these families of the Hominoid superfamily.
      ::超级家庭是一个将相关家庭组合在一起但低于顺序的税项。超级家庭的一个例子是Hominoids(猿类),这个超级家庭由Hominid家族(猩猩、黑猩猩和人类)和Hylobatid家族(gibbons)组成。图显示了Hominoid超级家庭这两个家族的物种。
    • A domain is a taxon higher than the kingdom. An example of a domain is Eukarya , which includes both plant and animal kingdoms. You can read more about domains in Lesson 14.3.
      ::域名是一个比王国高的税项。 域名的一个例子是欧卡里亚, 它包括植物和动物王国。 您可以在14.3课中阅读更多关于域名的更多信息。

    lesson content

    The Hominoid superfamily includes the Hominid and Hylobatid families. Members of the Hominid family are chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes , left), gorillas, orangutans, and humans. Members of the Hylobatid are all gibbons ( Nomaskus concolor , right).
    ::荷米诺特超级家庭包括Hominid和Hylobatid两个家庭、Hominid家族的成员是黑猩猩(Pan Troglodytes,左派)、大猩猩、猩猩和人类。 Hylobatid家族的成员都是gibbons(Nomakus concolor,右派)。

      

     

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Linnaean taxonomy groups organisms in a hierarchy of taxa, based on similarities in physical traits.
      ::根据生理特征的相似性,林内人分类学将生物组分在分类群的层次上。
    • Linnaeus’ binomial nomenclature gives each species a unique two-word name.
      ::Linnaeus的二进制术语赋予了每个物种一个独特的两字名。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. What contributions did Carolus Linnaeus make to taxonomy?
      ::卡罗勒斯·林内乌斯对分类学的贡献是什么?
    2. List the order of taxa in Linnaean taxonomy from most to least inclusive.
      ::列出从最包容到最少包容的林内亚分类学分类组的顺序 。
    3. What is binomial nomenclature?
      ::什么是二元论术语?
    4. Assume that a new organism has been discovered. It has a notochord, fur, forward-facing eyes, and grasping hands with fingers. In which taxa should the new organism be placed? Justify your answer.
      ::假设新生物体已经被发现,它有非科状的、毛皮的、前视的、用手指握住手的双眼。新生物体应该放在哪一类中呢?请说明答案的理由。
    5. Why was Linnaeus’ naming system such an important contribution to biology?
      ::为什么林内乌斯命名系统对生物学有如此重要的贡献?