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    What's growing on this lemon?
    ::柠檬上长了什么?

    Would you believe penicillin ? Penicillin is a , which of course is a , that has helped millions, if not billions, of people.
    ::你相信青霉素吗?青霉素是一个,当然是一个, 曾经帮助过,即使不是数十亿人,

    Human Uses of Fungi
    ::人用真菌

    Human use of fungi for food preparation and preservation has a long history. Baker's yeast, or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is a single- Ascomycete and is used in the baking of bread and other wheat-based products, such as pizza and dumplings. Several yeast of the genus Saccharomyces are also used in the production of alcoholic beverages through . Mycelial fungi, such as the shoyu koji mold ( Aspergillus oryzae ), are used in the brewing of Shoyu (soy sauce) and in the fermentation of whole soybeans to make tempeh.
    ::人类使用真菌进行食物准备和保存有很长的历史。 贝克的酵母,即萨查罗密斯的酵母,是单一的藻类,用于烘烤面包和其他小麦产品,如比萨饼和。 萨查罗密斯的一些酵母的酵母也被用于通过...生产酒精饮料。 微微菌,如(Aspergillus oryzae),用于酿制Shoyu(制糖酱)和整个大豆发酵,以产生热量。

    Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. Penicillium roqueforti fungus has been used to make Roquefort, Stilton, Gorgonzola, and other blue cheeses. Blue cheese is mentioned in literature as far back as 79 CE, when Pliny the Elder (a Roman author, naturalist , and natural philosopher) remarked upon its rich flavor.
    ::蘑菇种植和蘑菇采集是许多国家的大型产业。 青霉菌已经被用来制造罗克福特、斯蒂尔顿、戈尔贡佐拉和其他蓝奶酪。 蓝奶酪在文献中被提及可追溯到79 CE,当时普利尼长老(罗马作家、自然学家和自然哲学家)谈到其丰富的口味。

    Edible and Poisonous Fungi
    ::食用和毒毒性真菌

    Some of the best known types of fungi are the edible and the poisonous mushrooms. Many species are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. Agaricus bisporus, which are sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when larger, are the most commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have gained popularity in the West. They are often available fresh in grocery stores and markets, including shiitake, enokitake, and oyster mushrooms, shown in Figure .
    ::最有名的真菌是食用和有毒蘑菇。许多物种是商业上养殖的,但其他物种则必须从野生中收获。阿加里库斯饼干(Agaricus bisporus)是最常见的食用品种,用于沙拉、汤和许多其他盘子。许多亚洲真菌是商业上种植的,在西方也越来越受欢迎。它们经常在杂货店和市场上销售,如图中所示,这些杂货店和市场包括蘑菇、蛋白和牡蛎蘑菇。

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    Edible Asian mushrooms, clockwise from top left, enokitake, buna-shimeji, shiitake, and king oyster mushrooms.

    There are many more mushroom species that are harvested from the wild. Milk mushrooms, morels, truffles, chanterelles, black trumpets, and porcini mushrooms ( Boletus edulis ) all demand a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes. The highly prized and very expensive black truffle ( Tuber melanosporum ) is shown in  Figure .
    ::从野外收获的蘑菇种类更多。 牛奶蘑菇、更多果、松露、高糖、黑喇叭、黑喇叭和香草蘑菇(Boletus edulis)都要求市场价格高昂。 它们经常用于美食。 图中显示了高价值和非常昂贵的黑松露(Tuber melanosporrum) 。

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    Black Périgord Truffle (Tuber melanosporum), cut in half. Truffle fungi grow symbiotically with oak, beech, and poplar trees. Looking for truffles in open ground is almost always carried out with specially trained pigs (truffle hogs) or, more recently, dogs.

    To make certain types of cheeses, milk curds are inoculated with fungal spores that grow within the cheese. The mold gives a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. This accounts for the blue color in cheeses such as Stilton or Roquefort cheese, which are created by using Penicillium roqueforti spores, as shown in  Figure . Penicillium roqueforti is a common saprotrophic Ascomycete fungus that is widespread in nature and can be isolated from soil , decaying organic substances, and plant parts. Molds used in cheese production are usually non-toxic and are thus safe for human consumption.
    ::为了制造某些种类的奶酪,牛奶卷饼是用在奶酪中生长的真菌种进行接种的。模子给奶酪提供了独特的口味和纹理。这是Stilton或Roquefort奶酪等奶酪中的蓝色颜色,如图所示,这些奶酪是使用peniclium roqueforti spories创造的。Pennicillium roqueforti是一种常见的先天性、可与土壤、腐烂的有机物质和植物部件隔离的,因此,用于生产奶酪的霉菌通常没有毒性,因此对于人类消费来说是安全的。

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    Roquefort cheese on a cracker. You can see the greenish-gray color of the Penicillium roqueforti mold within the cheese. The mold gives the cheese a distinctive odor and flavor.

    Many mushroom species are toxic to humans, with toxicities ranging from slight digestive problems, allergic reactions, and hallucinations to severe organ failure and even death. Some of the most deadly mushrooms belong to the genera Inocybe, Cortinarius and Amanita. Ingestion of the death cap mushroom ( Amanita phalloides ) is the most common cause of known deadly mushroom poisoning. The false morel is considered a delicacy when cooked, yet can be deadly if eaten raw.
    ::许多蘑菇物种对人类有毒,其毒性从轻微的消化问题、过敏反应和幻觉到严重的器官衰竭甚至死亡不等。有些最致命的蘑菇属于Inocybe、Cortinarius和Amanita等基因。摄入死亡帽蘑菇(Amanita phalloides)是已知致命蘑菇中毒的最常见原因。假蘑菇中毒被认为是烹饪时的美味,如果吃生食,则致命。

    Mycotoxins
    ::甲酚毒素

    Death cap mushrooms have mycorrhizal relationships with many types of trees, such as oaks and chestnuts. As a result, they can be found growing in wooded areas in Europe, the US, Australia, and Asia. Proper identification of edible mushrooms takes lots of practice and study. Death caps look very similar to some edible mushrooms, such as the paddy straw and puffballs, as shown in  Figure . Most death cap poisonings are due to mistaken identity. The death cap's toxicity, caused by many different toxins in the mushroom, is not reduced by cooking, freezing, or drying.
    ::死亡帽蘑菇与许多种类的树木(如橡树和栗子)有着细微的关系。结果,它们在欧洲、美国、澳大利亚和亚洲的木林地区生长。 正确识别食用蘑菇需要大量实践和研究。 如图所示,死亡帽与一些食用蘑菇(如稻草和泡泡)非常相似。大多数死亡帽中毒是由于身份错误造成的。由蘑菇中许多不同毒素造成的死亡帽毒性并不因烹饪、冷冻或干燥而减少。

    You should only ever pick or consume mushrooms that you know for certain are edible. Use a reliable mushroom field guide specific to the area.
    ::您应该只采摘或食用您知道肯定可以食用的蘑菇。 请使用针对此区域的可靠的蘑菇实地指南 。

    • destroying angel (Amanita virosa)
      Edit here for caption

      ::编辑此标题
    • puffball mushroom
      Edit here for caption

      ::编辑此标题
    One of these species is tasty and harmless, the other causes liver and kidney failure. Can you tell from just the pictures which one is poisonous? The destroying angel (Amanita virosa), on the left, is the cause of many mushroom poisonings every year, because young destroying angels look so similar to edible puffballs. On the right is a puffball mushroom.

    Many fungi produce compounds that are toxic. Such toxins are called mycotoxins, which refers to their fungal origin and toxic activity. Poisonous mushrooms and mycotoxins that cause food spoilage are of particular concern to humans. Aflatoxins are powerful liver toxins. Mold of the Aspergillus genus ( Aspergillus flavus ), which grow on and spoil grains and nuts, produce highly carcinogenic aflatoxins. Fungi of the Amanita genus produce deadly amatoxins, which are selective inhibitors of RNA polymerase II, the used in the synthesis of mRNA. Some other notable mycotoxins include ochratoxins, patulin, and ergot alkaloids, all of which have a large impact on human food supplies or livestock.
    ::许多真菌产生有毒的化合物。这种毒素被称为甲状腺毒素,指其真菌来源和有毒活动。造成食物变质的有毒蘑菇和甲状腺毒素对人类特别有意义。黄曲霉毒素是强大的肝毒素。Aspergillus genus(Aspergillus flavus)的霉菌(Aspergillus flavus)生长并腐蚀谷物和坚果,产生高度致癌的黄曲毒素。阿曼塔原菌的真菌产生致命的甲状毒素,这是RNA聚合酶II的选择性抑制剂。RNA合成中使用的RNA聚合酶II。其他一些显著的甲状腺毒素包括阿格拉托克斯、帕图林和藻类,所有这些都对人类食物供应或牲畜有重大影响。

    Mycotoxins provide a number of benefits to the fungi that produce them in terms of physiological adaptation , with other microbes and fungi, and protection from being eaten. These fitness benefits and the existence of dedicated biosynthetic pathways for mycotoxin production suggest that the mycotoxins are important for fungal survival.
    ::从生理适应、其他微生物和真菌以及防止被食用的保护角度来说,新霉素为产生真菌的真菌提供了许多好处。 这些健康好处和新霉素生产专用生物合成途径的存在表明,新霉素对于真菌的生存很重要。

    Fungi in the Biological Control of Pests
    ::害虫生物控制中的真菌

    In agricultural settings, fungi that actively compete for nutrients and space with pathogenic microorganisms, such as or other fungi, may be useful to humans. For example, some fungi may be used to suppress the growth of or kill plant , such as , mites, weeds , nematodes, and fungi that cause diseases of important crops. Fungi that infect insects can be used as biopesticides, as they actively kill insects. Certain parasitic fungi of grasses produce alkaloids that are toxic to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores . These alkaloids protect the infected grass plants from being eaten. Infection of grass with isolates of the fungal pathogen that produce only specific alkaloids is being used in grass breeding programs. Such grasses are more resistant to grazing by vertebrates and invertebrates.
    ::在农业环境中,与病原微生物(例如或其它真菌)积极竞争养分和空间的真菌对人类可能有用,例如,某些真菌可能被用来抑制植物生长或杀死植物,例如造成重要作物疾病的微粒、杂草、线虫和真菌。感染昆虫的真菌可以用作生物杀虫剂,因为它们会积极杀害昆虫。某些草的寄生虫真菌会产生对一系列无脊椎动物和脊椎动物有毒的藻类。这些藻类保护受感染的草植物不被食用。在草种育方案中使用了只产生特定藻类的真菌病菌的孤立的草。这些草更耐脊椎动物和无脊椎动物放牧。

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Human use of fungi for food preparation and preservation has a long history.
      ::人类使用真菌进行食物准备和保存有很长的历史。
    • Many species of fungi are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild.
      ::许多真菌种是商业培育的,但其他的则必须从野外收获。
    • Many fungi produce compounds that are toxic. Such toxins are called mycotoxins.
      ::许多真菌产生有毒化合物,这些毒素被称为甲酚毒素。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. What kind of advantage does producing toxic compounds give to fungi?
      ::产生有毒化合物对真菌有什么好处?
    2. Identify a useful chemical that is produced by fungi.
      ::识别真菌生产的有用化学品。
    3. Why are toxic mushrooms sometimes mistaken for harmless mushrooms?
      ::为什么有毒蘑菇有时被误认为无害蘑菇?
    4. A classmate says that toxic mushrooms are a danger to peoples’ health and should be wiped out. Do you agree? Explain your answer.
      ::一位同学说有毒蘑菇危害人民健康,应该消灭。你同意吗?请解释一下答案。

    Explore More
    ::探索更多