章节大纲

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    So what exactly is a dinosaur ?
    ::恐龙到底是什么?

    Dinosaurs were not lizards. Rather, they were a separate group of with a distinct upright posture not found in lizards. Dinosaurs can be described as large, powerful reptiles. And many were very big. But dinosaurs were more than that. They were a varied group of with over 1,000 non-avian .
    ::恐龙不是蜥蜴,相反,它们是一个单独的群体,有着在蜥蜴中找不到的明显的直立姿势。恐龙可以说是大而强大的爬行动物。许多是很大的爬行动物。但恐龙还不止于此。它们是一个由1000多个非禽类组成的不同群体。

    Evolution of Reptiles
    ::爬行的演变

    Timeline of Reptilian Evolution
    Cambrian Period (542 Mya to 488.3 Mya)
    Ordovician Period (488.3 Mya to 443.7 Mya)
    Silurian Period (443.7 Mya to 416.0 Mya)
    Devonian Period (416.0 Mya to 359.2 Mya)
    Carboniferous Period (359.2 Mya to 299.0 Mya)
    Permian Period (299.0 Mya to 251 Mya)
    		Paleozoic Era
    Jurassic Period (199.6 Mya to 145.5 Mya)
    Cretaceous Period (145.5 Mya to 65.5 Mya)
    Tertiary Period (65 Mya to 1.8 Mya)
    Quaternary Period (1.8 mya to today)

    Amniotes are descendants of the first reptiles that moved onto land. Reptiles are well adapted to life on land, which makes them very different than . Reptiles have tough waterproof scales covering their skin and have well developed lungs . The first amniotes, which resembled small lizards, evolved 340 million years ago, during the Carboniferous Period. Amniote eggs can survive out of the because the eggs can also "breathe" and cope with both waste disposal and gas exchange. This allowed reptiles to move further inland and away from the bodies of water where amphibians have to lay their eggs. The amniotic egg also allowed the eggs and the amniotes themselves to evolve into larger forms. These hardy eggs allowed the amniotes to live on land, across the globe. As a result, amniotes would go on to became the dominant land vertebrates .
    ::亚麻黄属第一批迁移到陆地的爬虫类的后代。 爬虫类非常适合陆地上的生活, 这使得它们与陆地上的生活非常不同。 爬虫类的皮肤有坚固的防水尺度, 并且有完善的肺部。 第一批类似小蜥蜴的羊类, 是在3亿4千万年前的碳纤维时期进化的。 亚麻黄蛋可以存活下来, 因为卵子也可以“ 呼吸 ” , 并能同时处理废物处理和气体交换。 这让爬虫类更深入内陆, 远离两栖动物产卵的水体。 羊蛋也允许卵和亚麻黄类动物自己演变成更大的形态。 这些硬蛋允许亚麻蛋在全球的陆地上生存。 结果, 羊蛋会成为主要的脊椎动物。

    Pangaea , Pangæa, or Pangea (from pan, meaning entire, and Gaea, meaning Earth in Ancient Greek) was the supercontinent, shown in  Figure , that existed during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras. Because there was one large land mass, the first reptiles were able to move freely between lands that are now distant continents.
    ::潘加亚、潘加亚(Pangalea ) 、 潘加(Pangagea ) 、 潘加(Pangagea ) 、 潘加(Pangagea ) 、 潘加(Pangagea ) 、 潘加(Pangea ) 、 或潘加(Gaea ) 、 古希腊语中的地球(Gaea ) ) 、 是图中所示的超大陆,存在于Paleozoic 和 Mesozocic 时代。 因为有一块巨大的陆地,第一批爬行动物能够在目前遥远的大陆之间自由移动。

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    Pangaea. This supercontinent existed during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras and during the time that the earliest reptiles were moving inland: the Carboniferous Period.

    During the Carboniferous Period (about 359 to about 299 million years ago), two groups of amniotes evolved: the Sauropsida and the Theropsida. The sauropsids ("lizard-face") gave rise to reptiles, dinosaurs, and , and the theropsids (“beast-face”), also known as synapsids, gave rise to mammals .
    ::在碳纤维时期(大约359至299亿年前),两组羊膜形成:Sauropsida和Theropsida。沙罗普西德(“利扎德面 ” ) 产生了爬行动物、恐龙和 — — 以及被称为突触的 — — 热带动物(“野兽面 ” ) , 产生了哺乳动物。

    The earliest known sauropsid reptiles were called Hylonomus, and the earliest known theropsid was called Archaeothyris. These small lizard-like animals quickly gave rise to many descendants.
    ::最早已知的索罗普斯爬行动物被称为希洛诺默斯,最早已知的亚罗普西德则被称为阿尔切奥瑟里斯。 这些像蜥蜴一样的小动物很快产生了许多后代。

    Hylonomus, shown in  Figure , is the oldest-known reptile. It was about 20 to 30 cm (8 to 12 inches) long and probably looked similar to modern lizards. It lived 315 million years ago, during the Carboniferous Period. Hylonomus had small sharp teeth and probably ate millipedes and early . The earliest reptiles were found in the swamp forests of the Carboniferous Period but were much smaller than the amphibians of that time. It was only after the small ice age at the end of the Carboniferous that the reptiles grew to larger sizes.
    ::图中显示的希洛诺穆斯是最古老的爬行动物,大约20至30厘米(8至12英寸)长,可能与现代蜥蜴相似。在碳纤维时代,它活了3.15亿年前。在碳纤维时期,它有小颗尖牙,可能吃过毫微粒和早期。最早的爬行动物在碳纤维时期的沼泽林中被发现,但比当时的两栖动物小得多。爬行动物在碳纤维时代末的冰河时代过后才变大。

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    Amniotes of the Carboniferous Period. The earliest known theropsid was a small lizard-like creature called Archaeothyris. It was about 50 cm long.

    The first true "reptiles" had a solid skull with holes only for the nose, , and spinal cord , as shown in  Figure . Such a skull structure is referred to as anapsid, and reptiles with a solid skull are called anapsids. are believed, by some scientists, to be surviving examples of the first true reptiles, as they have the anapsid skull structure. But other scientists disagree, arguing that turtles reverted to this primitive state in order to improve their body armor. Both sides have strong evidence , and the conflict has yet to be resolved.
    ::正如图所示,第一个真实的“分裂分子”有一个只有鼻孔、鼻孔和脊髓孔的坚固头骨。这样的头骨结构被称为“偏差 ” , 而具有固体头骨的爬虫类则被称为“偏差 ” 。 一些科学家认为,这是第一批真正的爬虫类的幸存例子,因为他们有毛骨骨骼结构。 但其他科学家则不同意,他们认为海龟为了改进身体盔甲而回到了原始状态。 双方都有确凿的证据,冲突也有待解决。

    Shortly after the first reptiles appeared, two branches split off; one led to the anapsids and the other led to the diapsids, whose skulls have an additional pair of holes behind the eyes and a second pair located higher up. Two groups developed from the diapsids: the lepidosaurs (the modern snakes, lizards, and tuataras) and the archosaurs (represented by only crocodilians and birds today, but also included the extinct pterosaurs and dinosaurs).
    ::第一个爬行动物出现后不久,两根树枝分解了;一枝导致亚虫,另一枝导致亚虫,其头骨在眼睛后面又增加了一对洞,另一对位于高处。 两组人从二头目中形成:白龙(现代蛇、蜥蜴和土阿塔拉斯)和考古动物(目前仅以鳄鱼和鸟类为代表,但也包括灭绝的恐龙和恐龙 ) 。

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    (Left-right) An anapsid skull and a diapsid skull. The anapsids gave rise to the synapsids, the ancestors of mammals.

    The anapsids also gave rise to a separate line of organisms : the synapsids. Synapsids developed a pair of holes in their skulls behind the eyes (similar to the diapsids), which were used to both lighten the skull and increase the space for jaw . The synapsids eventually evolved into mammals and are often referred to as stem-mammals.
    ::这些突触还产生了一种单独的有机体:突触。 突触在眼睛后头骨上形成一对洞(类似于突触),这些洞既用来点亮头骨,又用来增加下巴的空间。 突触最终演变成哺乳动物,并常常被称为干哺乳动物。

    The main evolutionary occurrence during the Mesozoic era was the adaptive radiation of diapsids. More species of diapsids evolved, and their numbers increased.
    ::地中海时代的主要进化现象是稀释物的适应性辐射。 更多的稀释物在进化,其数量也在增加。

    Diapsids included the dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and reptiles of the Mezozoic era and modern-day crocodilians, birds, and squamates (lizards and snakes).
    ::Dipsid包括恐龙、恐龙和爬行动物,这些是梅佐佐齐时代的爬行动物,以及现代的crocodilians、鸟类和同族动物(象和蛇)。

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    A timeline of reptilian evolution, from the earliest known reptile, Hylonomus, to existing species such as crocodiles and turtles.

    Early Triassic diapsids, some of which are shown in Figure  , included the following:
    ::Triassic diapsid早期(其中一些如图3所示)包括以下内容:

    • Euparkeria was bipedal and was about 150 cm long. It lived in the early Triassic Period, between 248-245 million years ago. It had a light, lean body, a long tail, and a small skull with tiny needle-like teeth. It fed on insects and any other small animals that it could find on the forest floor. It would periodically shed its teeth in order to keep them sharp.
      ::Euparkeria是两头双肢,长约150厘米,在248-2.45亿年前的Triassic时期早期居住,有一个光线、瘦瘦的身体、长尾巴和一个小头骨,有小针状牙齿,喂食昆虫和它在林地上能找到的任何其他小动物,定期磨牙,以保持它们锐利。
    • Rhynchosaurs were the most abundant diapsids of the Late Triassic, making up over 50% of all vertebrates. Paradapeton was an unusual-looking diapsid. It was 2 meters long and had a parrot-like beak . It most likely used its beak for cutting up tough plant materials.
      ::朗索萨是已故三亚西克河中最丰富的二亚硫磷,占所有脊椎动物的50%以上。帕拉达佩顿是一种不寻常的外观沙粒。它长2米,有像鹦鹉的嘴。它很可能用它的嘴来切割坚硬的植物材料。
    • By 250 million years ago, turtles had evolved. Protostegidae is a family of extinct marine turtles that lived during the Mesozoic Era. Protostegidae died out 65 million years ago during the the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event that led to the extinction of the dinosaurs. Through phylogenetic analysis, it has been determined that the closest living relatives of Protostegidae are the leatherback turtles.
      ::到了2.5亿年前,海龟已经进化了。 Protostegidae(Protostegidae)是一个由灭绝的海龟组成的大家庭,生活在中索奇时代。 Protostegidae(Protostegidae)在6500万年前导致恐龙灭绝的白鲸-大西洋灭绝事件中死亡。 通过植物遗传学分析,人们已经确定,Protostegidae(Protostegidae)最亲近的活生生的海龟是皮革龟。
    • Phytosaurs were successful Triassic crocodile-like reptiles. They were large, ranging from 2 to 12 meters long, but averaging at 3 to 4 meters. They were semi- , predatory archosaurs that were most common during the Late Triassic Period. These long-snouted and heavily-armored archosaurs bore a remarkable resemblance to modern crocodiles in size, appearance, and lifestyle. They were outcompeted and eventually driven extinct by the crocodilians, who became very diverse by the Cretaceous.
      ::菲沙龙是三思西克鳄类爬行动物成功的成功者。它们体积巨大,从2米到12米不等,平均为3米到4米。它们是半掠食性考古动物,在后三思西克时期最为常见。这些长鼻和重担的考古动物与大小、外观和生活方式的现代鳄鱼非常相似。它们相互交织,最终被鳄鱼灭绝,它们因白鲸而变得非常多样化。

    The diapsids then split into two groups: the archosauromorphs and the lepidosauromorphs. The archosaurs include the phytosaurs and crocodilians (Crurotarsi), pterosaurs, dinosaurs, and birds. Lepidosauromorpha includes the plesiosaurs, the ichthyosaurs, and the living Lepidosauria (the tuatara of the genus Sphenodon and the squamates). Living archosaurs include crocodiles and birds, which are shown in  Figure  .
    ::这些二亚硫磷随后分成两组:考古变形物和白化原体,包括植物类动物和丙二烯类动物(Crurotarsi)、巨人类动物、恐龙类和鸟类。

    Mammal-like reptiles (synapsids) were the dominant land vertebrates throughout the Permian Period, but most perished in the Permian-Triassic extinction event. The extinction of most of the mammal-like reptiles (synapsids) gave the archosaurs the chance to become the dominant land animals. The Mezozoic Era became known as the “Age of Dinosaurs.”
    ::类似哺乳动物的爬行动物(突触)在整个佩尔米亚时期一直是主要的土地脊椎动物,但大多数在佩尔米亚-齐亚西克灭绝事件中丧生。 大多数类似哺乳动物的爬行动物(突触 ) 的灭绝让考古动物有机会成为主要陆地动物。 中佐佐奇时代被称作“恐龙时代 ” 。

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    Living and extinct archosaurs. A Chinese alligator, a rhea, and a pterosaur are three examples of archosaurs. Archosaurs (Greek for 'ruling lizards') make up a group of diapsid reptiles that is represented today by crocodilians and birds. This group also includes extinct, non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and relatives of crocodiles.Edit here for caption

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • Amniotes are descendants of the first reptiles that moved onto land.
      ::亚尼诺是第一批爬行动物的后代 第一批爬行动物移到陆地上
    • During the Carboniferous Period, two groups of amniotes evolved: the Sauropsida and the Theropsida. The sauropsids gave rise to reptiles, dinosaurs, and birds, and the therapsids, also known as synapsids, gave rise to mammals.
      ::在碳纤维时代,两组羊膜形成:Sauropsida和Theropsida。 沙罗普西德产生了爬行动物、恐龙和鸟类,而拉皮斯(又称突触症)则产生了哺乳动物。
    • The first true "reptiles" had a solid skull with holes only for the nose, eyes, and spinal cord (anapsids).
      ::第一个真实的“分裂分子”有一个坚固的头骨,只有鼻子、眼睛和脊髓(幻影)有洞。
    • Shortly after the first reptiles appeared, two branches split off; one led to the anapsids and the other led to diapsids, whose skulls have an additional pair of holes behind the eyes and a second pair located higher up.
      ::第一个爬行动物出现后不久,两根树枝分解;一根树枝导致刺痛,另一根树枝导致刺痛,其头骨在眼睛后面又增加了一对洞,另一根树枝位于高处。
    • Two groups developed from the diapsids: the lepidosaurs (the modern snakes, lizards, and tuataras) and the archosaurs (represented by only crocodilians and birds today, but also included the extinct pterosaurs and dinosaurs).
      ::由diapsid形成的两个组群是:Lepidosaurs(现代蛇、蜥蜴和Tuataras)和考古动物(目前只代表鳄鱼和鸟类,但也包括已经灭绝的恐龙和恐龙)。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. Which group of amniotes eventually evolved into present-day reptiles? Which evolved into mammals?
      ::哪一类羊膜最终会演变成今天的爬行动物?
    2. What is the earliest known reptile like?
      ::最早已知的爬行动物是什么样子?
    3. What is the differences between anapsids and diapsids?
      ::Aapsids和diapsids之间有什么区别?
    4. Did mammals evolve from anapsids or diapsids?
      ::哺乳动物是从厌食或稀释演变而来的吗?
    5. Why is there controversy regarding the ancestors of turtles?
      ::为什么对海龟祖先有争议?