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    What does it mean to state a sound concrete argument with premises A and B and conclusion C? If one or more of the premises is untrue, does that make the argument unsound (quiet, maybe?), or not concrete (muddy, perhaps?).
    ::用A和B的房地和结论C来说明一个合理的具体论点意味着什么? 如果一个或一个以上的房地不真实,这是否使这个论点站不住脚(也许悄悄? ) , 或者说不具体(也许哑,也许? ) 。

    Arguments 
    ::参数参数

    Formal logical reasoning can seem somewhat… illogical to someone not familiar with the terminology involved. Jargon such as ‘affirm the disjunct’ or ‘denying the consequent’, can certainly sound impressive, but what does it mean ? Hearing terms such as these may make you think that logical reasoning is really only for lawyers or politicians. The truth is, understanding the basics of logical reasoning is an excellent skill for “the rest of us” who just want to be able to tell fact from fiction.
    ::正式逻辑推理对不熟悉相关术语的人来说似乎有些... 不合逻辑。 诸如`确认不相干 ' 或`否认结果 ' 等推理当然听起来令人印象深刻,但它意味着什么? 听这些术语可能会使你认为逻辑推理真的只对律师或政客适用。 事实上,理解逻辑推理的基本原理是“我们其他人”的绝佳技能,他们只是想从虚构中说出事实。

    lesson content

    By now you should know that statistics can be a pretty complex study, and that forming conclusions from questionable or faulty data is chancy at best. Logical reasoning is very similar . It is pretty easy for someone who really understands reasoning to make an argument that seems sound even though it may be based on faulty information, or to make true information seem to support an incorrect conclusion.
    ::现在,你应该知道,统计数据可能是一个相当复杂的研究,而从有疑问或错误的数据中得出结论充其量只是空话。 逻辑推理非常相似。 真正理解推理的人很容易得出一个似乎合理的论点,尽管其依据可能是错误的信息,或者得出真实的信息似乎支持了错误的结论。

    The goal of these lessons on logical thinking and argument is to help you recognize invalid and unsound reasoning so that you can make decisions in your life that are based on true data, rather than just someone else’s interpretation of data.
    ::这些关于逻辑思维和论点的教训的目的是帮助你认识无效和不正确的推理,以便你能够在生活中根据真实数据作出决定,而不仅仅是别人对数据的解释。

    Let’s start with some definitions:
    ::让我们先从一些定义开始:

    • An argument is a series of statements, progressing (usually in order, but not necessarily) from the premises , which are the assumptions (true or untrue), to the conclusion .
      ::一种论点是一系列声明,从假设(真实或不真实)到结论(通常按顺序排列,但不一定)取得进展。
    • The purpose of an argument is to present the premises in such a way as to support the truth of the conclusion .
      ::提出论据的目的是为了证明结论的真相。
    • A concrete statement is one that provides a specific example of a concept rather than just a generalization .  For instance:
      • Generalization : If A , then B . B , therefore A .
        ::普遍化:如果是A,则B.B,因此是A。
      • Concrete : If it rains, I carry an umbrella. It is raining, therefore I am carrying an umbrella.
        ::混凝土:如果下雨,我携带伞,下雨,所以我携带伞。

      ::具体的声明是一个概念的具体例子,而不仅仅是概括。例如:一般化:如果是A,那么B.B,因此是A.混凝土:如果下雨,我携带伞。所以下雨,我携带伞。
    • An argument is valid if the truth of its premises assures the truth of its conclusion .
      ::如果其前提的真相能保证其结论的真相,则论据是站得住脚的。
    • An argument is invalid or fallacious if it is not valid .
      ::如果论据无效,则其无效或荒谬。
    • A sound argument has both true premises and valid reasoning.
      ::一个合理的论据既有真实的前提,也有有效的推理。

    Determining Validity
    ::确定有效性

    Is the following a valid argument?
    ::以下论点是否有效?

    Stars are holiday lights in the curtain of night. Holiday lights are only lit from November to February. Therefore, stars are only lit from November to February.
    ::星光是夜幕下的假日灯,假日灯只在11月至2月亮,因此,星星只在11月至2月亮。

    Yes! This is indeed a valid argument. Remember that an argument is valid if the truth of the premises assures the truth of the conclusion. If indeed the stars were holiday lights, and if holiday lights were only lit for those few months, then the stars would go out at the end of January, not to be seen again until after Halloween.
    ::确实如此,这确是有效的论据。记住,如果房地的真相能保证结论的真实性,则论据是正当的。 如果星星的确是假日灯光,如果假日灯光只亮了几个月,那么星星将在1月底离开,直到万圣节过后才能再次看到。

    This is a good example of the fact that an argument certainly need not be sound , or true, in order to be valid .
    ::这是一个很好的例子,说明一个论点当然不需要是正确或真实的,才能有效。

    Determining if an Argument is Sound 
    ::确定辩论是否合理

    1. Is the following argument sound?
    ::1. 以下论点是否合理?

    If it is snowing, it is cold. It is snowing, therefore it is cold.
    ::如果下雪,是寒冷的,是下雪的,因此是寒冷的。

    Yes, this is a sound argument. It is valid , since the truth of the premises “If it is snowing, it is cold”, and “It is snowing”, assures the truth of the conclusion “It is cold”. Since the statements are both true (at least they are right now, since it is snowing outside as I write this question!), the conclusion is also true.
    ::是的,这是一个合理的论点,它是正确的,因为“如果下雪,那么是寒冷的”和“下雪”的前提的真相保证了结论的真相,“这是寒冷的”。 由于这些声明都是真的(至少现在是正确的,因为当我写这个问题的时候,外面正在下雪!),结论也是真实的。

    2. Is the following argument sound ?
    ::2. 以下论点是否合理?

    If the grass is green, it is not winter. It is late fall, therefore the grass is green.
    ::如果草是绿色的,那它不是冬天,它是很晚的秋天,所以草是绿色的。

    No, this is not a sound argument, in fact, it is not valid . The problem is that even if both premises are true, they do not assure the truth of the conclusion. This is actually an example of a common fallacy that we will explore further in another lesson.
    ::不,这不是一个合理的论据,事实上,这是错误的,问题是,即使两个前提都是真的,它们也不能保证结论的真实性。 这实际上是一个共同谬误的例子,我们将在另一个教训中进一步探讨。

    Earlier  Problem Revisited
    ::重审先前的问题

    What does it mean to state a sound argument with premises A and B and conclusion C? If one or more of the premises is untrue, does that make the argument unsound ( silent , maybe?) .
    ::用A和B处和结论C处说明合理论点意味着什么? 如果一个或一个以上处和结论C处不真实,这是否使论点站不住脚(沉默,也许? ) 。

    A sound argument is one with both valid reasoning and true premises. In this case, that means that both premise A and premise B are true, and they ensure that the conclusion, C, is also true. If either A or B prove to be untrue, then the argument will still be valid, but will no longer be considered sound.
    ::合理的理由和真实的前提都是正当的。 在本案中,这意味着前提A和前提B都是真实的,它们确保结论C也是真实的。 如果事实证明要么A要么B是不真实的,那么论据将依然有效,但将不再被视为合理。

    Examples
    ::实例

    Examples 1-4 refer to the following argument:
    ::例1-4提到以下论点:

    All people who drive red cars get speeding tickets. I drive a red car. I get speeding tickets.
    ::所有开红色汽车的人都得超速罚单 我开红色汽车,超速罚单

    Example 1
    ::例1

    What are the premises of this argument?
    ::这一论点的根据是什么?

    The premises are: a) “All people who drive red cars get speeding tickets”. b) “I drive a red car”.
    ::房舍是sada) “所有驾驶红色汽车的人都得到超速罚单”。 (b) “我驾驶红色汽车”。

    Example 2
    ::例2

    What is the conclusion?
    ::结论是什么?

    The conclusion is: “I get speeding tickets”.
    ::结论是:“我得到超速罚单”。

    Example 3
    ::例3

    Is the argument valid?
    ::论点是否有效?

    The argument is valid, since the conclusion must be true if both premises are true.
    ::这一论点是有道理的,因为如果两个前提都属实,结论必须是真实的。

    Example 4
    ::例4

    Is the argument sound?
    ::争论是否合理?

    The argument is not sound, since the first premise, “All people who drive red cars get speeding tickets”, is not true.
    ::这一论点不合理,因为第一个前提,即“所有驾驶红色汽车的人都得到超速罚单”,是不正确的。

    Review 
    ::回顾

    Questions 1-4 refer to the following:
    ::问题1-4如下:

    All students who listen to comedy shows while studying get distracted. Evan listens to comedy shows while studying. Therefore, Evan gets distracted.
    ::埃文在学习时会听喜剧表演。因此,埃文会分心。

    1. What are the premises?
    ::1. 房地是什么?

    2. What is the conclusion?
    ::2. 结论是什么?

    3. Is the argument valid?
    ::3. 论点是否有效?

    4. Is the argument sound?
    ::4. 论点是否合理?

    Questions 5-8 refer to the following:
    ::问题5-8涉及以下方面:

    Basketball is great exercise. Sam plays basketball. Sam is in great shape.
    ::篮球是很棒的练习 山姆打篮球 山姆身材很好

    5. What are the premises?
    ::5. 房地是什么?

    6. What is the conclusion?
    ::6. 结论是什么?

    7. Is the argument valid?
    ::7. 论点是否有效?

    8. Is the argument sound?
    ::8. 论点是否合理?

    Questions 9-12 refer to the following:
    ::问题9-12涉及以下方面:

    All students that fall asleep in class are male. Trisha falls asleep in class. Therefore Trisha is male.
    ::上课睡觉的学生都是男生,Trisha上课睡觉,因此Trisha是男生。

    9. What are the premises?
    ::9. 房地是什么?

    10. What is the conclusion?
    ::10. 结论是什么?

    11. Is the argument valid?
    ::11. 论点是否有效?

    12. Is the argument sound?
    ::12. 论点是否合理?

    Questions 13-16 refer to the following:
    ::问题13-16涉及以下方面:

    All dogs chase cats. Mack chases cats. Therefore Mack is a dog.
    ::所有的狗都追猫 麦克追猫 所以麦克是只狗

    13. What are the premises?
    ::13. 房地是什么?

    14. What is the conclusion?
    ::14. 结论是什么?

    15. Is the argument valid?
    ::15. 这一论点是否有效?

    16. Is the argument sound?
    ::16. 论点是否合理?

    Review (Answers)
    ::回顾(答复)

    Click to see the answer key or go to the Table of Contents and click on the Answer Key under the 'Other Versions' option.
    ::单击可查看答题键, 或转到目录中, 单击“ 其他版本” 选项下的答题键 。