章节大纲

  • 常规

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  • 经济概念和循环流动模式

    Basic Economic Concepts
    ::基本经济概念

    Economists carry a set of theories in their heads like a carpenter carries around a toolkit. When they see an economic issue or problem, they go through the theories they know to see if they can find one that fits. Then they use the theory to derive insights about the issue or problem. In economics, theories are expressed as diagrams, graphs, or even as mathematical equations. (Do not worry. In this course, we will mostly use graphs.) Economists do not figure out the answer to the problem first and then draw the graph to illustrate. Instead, they use the graph of the theory to help them figure out the solution.
    ::经济学家头顶上有一套理论,就像木匠随身携带一个工具箱。当他们看到一个经济问题或问题时,他们会通过他们知道的理论来看他们能否找到合适的。然后他们用理论来了解问题或问题。在经济学中,理论以图表、图表甚至数学公式来表达。 (不要担心,在这个过程中,我们主要使用图表。 )经济学家不会先找出问题的答案,然后绘制图表来说明。相反,他们用理论图表来帮助他们找出解决办法。

    Although at the basic level, you can sometimes figure out the right answer without applying a model, if you keep studying   economics   before too long you will run into issues and problems that you will need to graph to solve. Both micro and macroeconomics are explained with theories and models. The most well-known theories are probably those of supply and demand, but you will learn many others.
    ::尽管在基本层面,但有时你可以在不应用模型的情况下找到正确的答案,如果你在太长的时间之前就继续研究经济学,你就会遇到你需要用图表解决的问题。 微观和宏观经济都用理论和模型来解释。 最著名的理论可能是供求理论,但你会学到很多其他的。

    Universal Generalizations
    ::普遍化

    • Economics provides a foundation for analyzing choices and making decisions.
      ::经济学为分析选择和决策提供了基础。
    • Economists believe that economic systems will be able to cope and evolve when necessary.
      ::经济学家认为,经济体系在必要时将能够应对和发展。

    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    1. Why is the free enterprise economy not the same as it was a century ago?
      ::为什么自由企业经济与一个世纪前不同?
    2. What do economists predict will happen to economic systems in the future?
      ::经济学家预测未来经济体系将会发生什么情况?

    Consumers, Goods & Services
    ::消费者、货物和服务

    Economic products are goods and services that are considered transferable, scarce and useful to individuals, businesses, or governments. When we purchase goods and services, we are consumers. We acquire things or services to satisfy our wants and needs. Because goods and services may be scarce, they will command a price.  Consumer goods are products that are intended for use by individuals, such as shoes, backpacks, cars, or computer. While capital goods are items that are manufactured to produce other goods and services, such as a bulldozer used to clear land for homes, school computers for students, or a cash register at a grocery store.  Writing paper, food products, and gasoline are considered non-durable goods since they do not last for longer than six months when used regularly. Televisions, refrigerators, or tables are durable goods because they will last three or more years when used on a regular basis.
    ::经济产品是指被视为可转让、稀缺和对个人、企业或政府有用的商品和服务。当我们购买商品和服务时,我们是消费者。我们获得东西或服务以满足我们的需求和需要。由于商品和服务可能稀缺,它们将获得价格。消费品是供个人使用的产品,如鞋、背包、汽车或计算机。资本货物是生产其他商品和服务而制造的物品,如用于清除家用土地的推土机、学生的学校电脑或杂货店的现金登记。写纸、食品和汽油被视为不可耐用物品,因为经常使用的时间不超过6个月。电视、冰箱或桌子是耐用物品,因为经常使用时它们会持续3年或3年以上。

    A service is also considered an economic product because people will pay to have a service performed by someone else. Haircuts, insurance, a visit to the dentist, or banking are all services. The difference between a good and a service is that a good is tangible, it is something that we receive. While a service is something we pay for but it is not tangible.
    ::服务也被视为一种经济产品,因为人们会付钱让别人提供服务。 理发、保险、看牙医或银行都是服务。 货物与服务之间的区别在于货物是有形的,这是我们得到的东西。 虽然服务是我们付费的,但并非有形的。

    Value, Utility & Wealth
    ::价值、功用和财富

    According to economists, for something to have value, it must be scarce and have utility. Value is defined as an item that has a worth that can be expressed in dollars and cents. Individuals, businesses, and governments determine if a product or service is worth the “value” that is placed on it. If the item is worth more to the consumer than the value it is listed at; then we may decide to purchase the product and trade money for the good or service.  This type of economic decision also takes into account the concept of utility.  Utility is the usefulness of an item and must provide the purchaser with some satisfaction; otherwise, the purchase would not take place. A product’s utility is determined by the consumer. Some people may find an item more useful than another. One person may enjoy collecting DVDs of movies or attending concerts, while another person may not find those items as useful. 
    ::经济学家认为,对于有价值的东西,价值必须是稀缺的,并且具有实用性。价值被定义为价值可以以美元和美分表示的物品。个人、企业和政府决定产品或服务是否值得“价值 ” 。 个人、企业和政府决定产品或服务是否值得它上方的“价值 ” 。 如果该产品或服务对消费者的价值大于它列出的价值,那么我们就可以决定购买产品和为货物或服务交易钱。 此类经济决策也考虑到实用性的概念。 实用性是物品的有用性,必须向购买者提供一定的满意度;否则,购买不会发生。 产品的效用是由消费者决定的。 一些人可能会发现比其他人更有用的物品。 一个人可以享受收集电影DVD或参加音乐会,而另一个人可能认为这些物品没有用处。

    One contradiction in economics is “the paradox of value” . The “paradox of value” is a situation where something should have value because it is useful, such as water, but it, in fact, has little monetary value. On the other hand, diamonds have a high monetary value but have little use and are not essential for survival.
    ::经济学中的一个矛盾是“价值悖论 ” “价值悖论 ” , “价值悖论”是指某种东西应该具有价值的情况,因为它有用,例如水,但事实上它几乎没有什么货币价值。 另一方面,钻石的货币价值很高,但用处不大,对生存来说并不重要。

    Wealth is the accumulation of all those products that are scarce, tangible and transferable from one person to another. A nation’s wealth is comprised of everything the nation has within its borders. All of the resources, material goods, and skills of a country’s people determine its wealth. When economists evaluate countries and their standard of living, or how well the people live, some nations are therefore considered wealthier than others based on what they have. An example of what may add wealth to a nation would be the amount of fertile land it has for food production.
    ::财富是所有稀缺的、有形的、从一个人转移到另一个人的产品积累。 一个国家的财富包括国家在其边界内拥有的一切。 一国人民的所有资源、物质和技能都决定其财富。 当经济学家评估国家及其生活水平或人民的生活状况时,一些国家根据它们所拥有的条件被视为比其他国家更富有。 给一个国家增加财富的一个例子就是它拥有多少肥沃的粮食生产用地。

    Economists see the world through a different lens than anthropologists, biologists, classicists, or practitioners of any other discipline. They analyze issues and problems with economic theories that are based on particular assumptions about human behavior, which are different from the assumptions an anthropologist or psychologist might use. A theory is a simplified representation of how two or more variables interact with each other. The purpose of a theory is to take a complex, real-world issue and simplify it down to its essentials. If done well, this enables the analyst to understand the issue and any problems with it. A good theory is simple enough to be understood, while complex enough to capture the key features of the object or situation being studied.
    ::经济学家通过与人类学家、生物学家、经典学家或任何其他学科的实践者不同的视角看待世界。 他们分析了基于人类行为特定假设的经济理论的难题,这些假设不同于人类学家或心理学家可能使用的假设。 理论是简单描述两个或两个以上变量相互作用的方式。 理论的目的是将一个复杂、现实世界的问题简化到其基本方面。 如果做得好, 分析师就能理解问题和任何问题。 良好的理论非常简单, 并且非常复杂, 足以捕捉研究对象或情况的关键特征 。

    Sometimes economists use the term model instead of theory. Strictly speaking, a theory is a more abstract representation, while a model is a more applied or empirical representation. Models are used to test theories, but for this course, we will use the terms interchangeably.
    ::有时经济学家使用这个术语来代替理论。 严格地说,理论是一种比较抽象的表述,而一个模型则是一种比较应用或经验化的表述。 模型被用来测试理论,但对于这个课程,我们将互换使用这些术语。

    For example, an architect who is planning an office building will often build a physical model that sits on a tabletop to show how the entire city block will look after the new building is constructed. Companies often build models of their new products, which are more rough and unfinished than the final product will be but can still demonstrate how the new product will work.
    ::比如,一个正在规划办公楼的建筑师往往会建立一个物理模型,在桌面上展示整个城市将如何照顾新大楼的建造。 公司往往会建立新产品模型,这些新产品比最终产品更粗糙和未完成,但仍能展示新产品将如何运作。

    Circular Flow Model
    ::圆环流动模式

    In economics, a good model to start with is the circular flow diagram, shown below. It pictures the economy as consisting of two groups—households and firms—that interact in two markets: the goods and services market in which firms sell and households buy and the labor market in which households sell labor to business firms or other employees.
    ::在经济学方面,从循环流动图开始的一个良好模式是如下所示的循环流动图,它描绘出经济由两组家庭和公司组成,在两个市场相互作用:公司销售的商品和服务市场和家庭购买的商品和服务市场,以及家庭向企业或其他雇员出售劳力的劳动力市场。

    The Circular Flow Diagram
    ::循环流程图

    The circular flow diagram shows how households and firms interact in the goods and services market, and in the labor market. The direction of the arrows shows that in the goods and services market, households receive goods and services and pay firms for them. In the labor market, households provide labor and receive payment from firms through wages, salaries, and benefits.
    ::循环流程图显示了家庭和企业在商品和服务市场以及劳动力市场中的互动方式。 箭头的方向表明,在商品和服务市场中,家庭获得商品和服务,并为它们支付企业。 在劳动力市场中,家庭提供劳动力,并通过工资、工资和福利从企业获得报酬。

    Of course, in the real world, there are many different markets for goods and services and markets for many different types of labor. The circular flow diagram simplifies this to make the picture easier to grasp. In the diagram, firms produce goods and services, which they sell to households in return for revenues. This is shown in the outer circle and represents the two sides of the product market (for example, the market for goods and services) in which households demand and firms supply. Households sell their labor as workers to firms in return for wages, salaries, and benefits. This is shown in the inner circle and represents the two sides of the labor market in which households supply and firms demand.
    ::当然,在现实世界中,商品和服务市场以及多种不同类型劳动力市场都存在许多不同的市场。循环流动图简化了这一点,以使人们更容易掌握。在图表中,公司生产商品和服务,以换取收入,出售给家庭。这在外圈中显示,代表了家庭需求和公司供应的产品市场(例如商品和服务市场)的两面。 家庭将劳动力作为工人出售给公司,以换取工资、工资和福利。 这在内部圈中表现,代表了家庭供货和公司需求的两个劳动力市场。

    This version of the circular flow model is stripped down to the essentials, but it has enough features to explain how the product and labor markets work in the economy. We could easily add details to this basic model if we wanted to introduce more real-world elements, like financial markets, governments, and interactions with the rest of the globe (imports and exports).
    ::循环流动模式的这一版本被剥除为基本要素,但它有足够的特征来解释产品和劳动力市场在经济中是如何运作的。 如果我们想引入更真实的世界元素,比如金融市场、政府和与全球其他地方(进出口)的互动,我们可以很容易地为这一基本模式添加细节。

     Video: Circular Flow of Income and Expenditures
    ::视频:收入和支出流动通报

    Circular Flow of Economic Activity
    ::经济活动循环流动

    The circular flow of economic activity helps to generate wealth in a country. The features of the product markets, businesses, individuals and factor markets, allows buyers and sellers to exchange money for products or products for money. Markets may be local, regional, national or international. In the last several years the internet has helped to facilitate the idea of a truly global market. Businesses and individuals can locate and exchange goods and services all with the click of a mouse.
    ::经济活动的循环流动有助于一国创造财富,产品市场、企业、个人和要素市场的特点允许买方和卖方以货币换产品或产品,市场可以是地方、区域、国家或国际的,过去几年里,互联网帮助促进了真正全球市场的想法,企业和个人可以通过点击鼠标找到和交换所有商品和服务。

    Factor markets are places where productive resources are bought and sold. This is where workers sell their labor and entrepreneurs look for labor.  This is also where land is bought, sold or rented by businesses and where banks lend capital or money. The factors market is the place where the four factors of production (land, labor, capital, entrepreneurs) come together.
    ::产业市场是生产资源买卖的场所,是工人出售劳动力和企业家寻找劳动力的地方,也是企业购买、出售或租赁土地的地方,也是银行借出资本或货币的地方。 要素市场是四个生产要素(土地、劳动力、资本、企业家)汇合的地方。

    Businesses and individuals spend money in the product market where they purchase goods and services. Therefore the money that individuals receive from working in the factor market (at their job) is then spent in the product markets acquiring goods and services. Then a business uses the money to hire more workers, produce more goods, and increase their business output. Thus the cycle continues, and if the business cycle is doing well, then the added result will be that the economy will grow.
    ::企业和个人在购买商品和服务的产品市场花费金钱,因此,个人从在要素市场工作得到的钱(在他们的工作上)就花在产品市场获得商品和服务上。 然后,企业利用钱来雇用更多的工人、生产更多的货物并增加他们的商业产出。 因此,周期在继续,如果商业周期运作良好,增加的结果将是经济增长。

    Economic growth will occur if the country’s output of goods and services increases over time. The circular flow diagram will continue to expand, and more and more items will be for sale as long as people have jobs (participate as labor) and continue to spend their money on those products.  If people lose their jobs or are fearful about the future, they will not spend money, which would hurt the circular flow of economic activity, and the overall economy will contract.
    ::如果国家的商品和服务产出随时间推移而增加,经济增长就会出现。 循环流动图将继续扩大,只要人们有工作(作为劳动力参与)并继续将钱花在这些产品上,就会有越来越多的物品出售。 如果人们失业或担心未来,他们就不会花费钱,这会损害经济活动循环流动,而整个经济将收缩。

    Everyone benefits if the economy is expanding. Productivity can increase if resources are used efficiently, and the factors of production are skillfully applied. If a company hires workers who are proficient in their jobs, then the division of labor and specialization of the workforce can, in fact, increase the productivity of the company.  One of the best ways to improve the workforce is by investing in human capital, or the education and skills of the laborers. The better qualified, competent, and motivated a workforce is, the more productive it can be. Those workers who are skilled in their occupations can impact the performance of the business and the life of the employees. Workers with more education and skills have higher earning potential over their lifetimes and contribute to the economy by participating in the circular flow of economic activity. 
    ::如果资源得到有效利用,生产力可以提高,生产要素也可以得到熟练应用。如果公司雇用工作熟练的工人,那么劳动力的分工和专业化实际上可以提高公司的生产力。改善劳动力的最佳方法之一是投资于人力资本或劳动力的教育和技能。更合格、更胜任和更有动力的劳动力是生产力越高。从事其职业的熟练工人可以影响企业的业绩和雇员的生活。受过更多教育和技能的工人在一生中拥有更高的收入潜力,通过参与经济活动的循环流动对经济作出贡献。

    Our economy relies on everyone doing their part in the circular flow of economic activity. Events that occur locally, or nationally, impact the rest of the consumers and producers in this country. Once again we realize why the concept of economics is vital to everyone, and how our participation in the economy can impact others.
    ::我们的经济依赖每个人在经济活动循环流动中尽自己的一份力量。 当地或国内发生的事件影响到国内其他消费者和生产者。 我们再次认识到为什么经济概念对每个人至关重要,以及我们参与经济会如何影响他人。

    Financing Higher Education
    ::资助高等教育

    On November 8, 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson signed The Higher Education Act of 1965 into law. With a stroke of the pen, he implemented what we know as the financial aid, work-study, and student loan programs to help Americans pay for a college education. In his remarks, the President said:
    ::1965年11月8日,林登·约翰逊总统签署了1965年《高等教育法》,成为法律。 他一针见血地实施了我们所知道的财政援助、工作学习和学生贷款方案,以帮助美国人支付大学教育费用。 总统在讲话中说:

    Here the seeds were planted from which grew my firm conviction that for the individual, education is the path to achievement and fulfillment; for the Nation, it is a path to a society that is not only free but civilized; and for the world, it is the path to peace—for it is education that places reason over force.         President Lyndon B. Johnson
    ::在这里播下了种子,使我更加坚信,对个人而言,教育是成就和成就之路;对民族而言,教育是通往一个不仅自由而且文明的社会的道路;对世界而言,教育是通往和平的道路——因为教育使人有理由置疑于武力之上。

    This Act, he said, "is responsible for funding higher education for millions of Americans. It is the embodiment of the United States’ investment in ‘human capital’." Since the Act was first signed into law, it has been renewed several times.
    ::他说,该法案“负责为数百万美国人的高等教育提供资金。 它体现了美国对`人力资本 ' 的投资。 ”自从该法案首次签署成为法律以来,已经多次更新。

    The purpose of The Higher Education Act of 1965 was to build the country’s human capital by creating educational opportunity for millions of Americans. The three criteria used to judge eligibility are income, full-time or part-time attendance, and the cost of the institution. According to the 2011–2012 National Postsecondary Student Aid Study (NPSAS:12), in the 2011–2012 school year, over 70% of all full-time college students received some form of federal financial aid; 47% received grants, and another 55% received federal government student loans. The budget to support financial aid has increased not only because of increased enrollment but also because of increased tuition and fees for higher education. These increases are currently being questioned. The President and Congress are charged with balancing fiscal responsibility and significant government-financed expenditures like investing in human capital.
    ::1965年《高等教育法》的目的是通过为数百万美国人创造教育机会来建设国家的人力资本。 用于判断资格的三项标准是收入、全日制或非全日制出勤率以及机构成本。 根据2011—2012年全国中学后学生援助研究(NPSAS:12 ) , 2011—2012学年,超过70%的全日制大学生获得了某种形式的联邦财政援助;47%获得赠款,另有55%获得联邦政府学生贷款。 支持财政援助的预算不仅因为入学率增加,而且因为高等教育的学费和收费增加而有所增加。 这些增长目前受到质疑。 总统和国会负责平衡财政责任和大量政府融资支出,比如人力资本投资。

    Video: The Circular Flow Matrix
    ::视频:循环流动矩阵

    View the video below by economics teacher Jacob Clifford for another explanation of the circular flow model.
    ::以下影片由经济学老师Jacob Clifford浏览,

     

    Answer the self check questions below to monitor your understanding of the concepts in this section.
    ::回答下面的自我核对问题,以监测你对本节概念的理解。

    Self Check Questions
    ::自查问题

    1. What is an example of a problem in the world today, not mentioned in this chapter, that has an economic component?
    ::1. 本章没有提到的当今世界上一个包含经济内容的问题的一个例子是什么?

    2. Are households primarily buyers or sellers in the goods and services market? In the labor market?
    ::2. 家庭是否主要是商品和服务市场的买家或卖家?在劳动力市场上?

    3. Are firms primarily buyers or sellers in the goods and services market? In the labor market?
    ::3. 公司主要是货物和服务市场的买方还是卖方?在劳动力市场上?

    4. Discuss the relationship between scarcity, value, utility, and wealth.
    ::4. 讨论稀缺、价值、效用和财富之间的关系。

    5. Explain why productivity is vital to economic growth.
    ::5. 解释为什么生产力对经济增长至关重要。

    6. In what ways do businesses and households both supply and demand in the circular flow model?
    ::6. 在循环流动模式中,企业和家庭的供求方式如何?

    Application:
    ::适用范围 :

    Suppose, as an economist, you are asked to analyze an issue, unlike anything you have ever done before. Also, suppose you do not have a specific model for analyzing that issue. What should you do? Hint: What would a carpenter do in a similar situation?
    ::假设说,作为一个经济学家,你被要求分析一个问题,这与你以前做过的事情不同。此外,假设你没有分析该问题的具体模式。你应该怎么做?提示:木匠在类似情况下会做什么?