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  • General

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  • 财产事项 财产事项

    Property Matters
    ::财产事项 财产事项

    Business owners have the right to own, use, and dispose of property, yet they also have the responsibility to follow government regulations.  The most common form of land-use regulation is zoning.  Since New York City adopted the first zoning ordinance in 1916, zoning regulations have been adopted by virtually every major urban area in the United States.
    ::企业拥有者有权拥有、使用和处置财产,但他们也有责任遵守政府条例,土地使用条例最常用的形式是分区,自纽约市1916年通过首个分区法令以来,美国几乎所有主要城市地区几乎都通过了分区条例。

    Universal Generalizations
    ::普遍化

    • Land use and zoning involve the regulation of the use and development of real estate.
      ::土地使用和分区包括管理房地产的使用和开发。
    • Zoning regulations and restrictions are used by municipalities to control and direct the development of property within their borders.
      ::市政当局使用划区条例和限制来控制和指导其境内财产的开发。

    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    1. What are the costs and benefits of owning property and/or a business?
      ::拥有财产和(或)企业的成本效益如何?
    2. How do financial institutions facilitate business operations?
      ::金融机构如何便利商业运作?
    3. What types of governmental restrictions are made on the use of business and property?
      ::对企业和财产的使用规定了何种类型的政府限制?
    4. What ordinance and regulations apply to the establishment and operation of sole proprietorships, partnerships, and corporations?
      ::哪些法令和条例适用于独资企业、合伙企业和公司的建立和运作?

     

    What are Zoning Regulations?
    ::什么是《区划条例》?

    The basic purpose and function of zoning is to divide a municipality into residential, commercial, and industrial districts (or zones), that are for the most part separate from one another, with the use of property within each district being reasonably uniform. Within these three main types of districts there will generally be additional restrictions that can be quite detailed -- including the following:
    ::分区的基本目的和职能是将一个市镇分为居住区、商业区和工业区(或区),这些区大部分是相互分离的,每个区内的财产使用有合理的统一性。

    • Specific requirements as to the type of buildings allowed
      ::关于允许建筑类型的具体要求
    • Location of utility lines
      ::公用事业项目地点
    • Restrictions on accessory buildings, building setbacks from the streets and other boundaries
      ::对附属建筑的限制,对街道和其他边界的挫折建筑的限制
    • Size and height of buildings
      ::建筑物面积和高度
    • Number of rooms
      ::房间数

    These restrictions may also cover the frontage of lots; minimum lot area; front, rear, and side yards; off-street parking; the number of buildings on a lot; and the number of dwelling units in a certain area. Regulations may restrict areas to single-family homes or to multi-family dwellings or townhouses. In areas of historic or cultural significance, zoning regulations may require that certain features be preserved.
    ::这些限制还可能包括地块的前沿;最小地块面积;前、后和侧场;离街停车场;批量建筑的数量;以及某一地区的居住单位数量;条例可能将地区限制在单户住宅或多户住宅或城镇住宅中;在具有历史或文化意义的地区,分区条例可能要求保留某些地物。

    Regulation of Development
    ::发展管理条例

    Land-use regulation is not restricted to controlling existing buildings and uses; in large part, it is designed to guide future development. Municipalities commonly follow a planning process that ultimately results in a master plan, and in some states the creation of an official map for a municipality. The master plan is then put into effect by ordinances controlling   , regulation of subdivision developments, street plans, plans for public facilities, and building regulations. Future developers must plan their subdivisions in accordance with the official map or plan.
    ::土地使用管理不仅限于控制现有的建筑和用途;在很大程度上,它旨在指导未来的发展;城市通常遵循一个规划过程,最终形成总体计划,在有些州,为城市绘制正式地图;然后,总计划通过法令、分区发展管理、街道计划、公共设施计划以及建筑条例实施;未来的开发商必须根据官方地图或计划规划其分区。

    In recent years, an increasing emphasis has been placed on regional and statewide planning. Recognizing that the actions of one municipality will strongly affect neighboring cities, occasionally in conflicting and contradictory ways, these planning initiatives allow the creation of a regional plan that offers one comprehensive vision and one set of regulations.
    ::近几年来,人们越来越重视地区和州一级的规划工作,认识到一个城市的行动会对相邻城市产生强烈的影响,有时会以矛盾和矛盾的方式影响相邻城市,因此,这些规划举措使得能够制定一项区域计划,提出一个全面的愿景和一套条例。

    Limits on Zoning Regulation
    ::区划条例的限制

    Because  land-use and zoning regulations restrict the rights of owners to use their property as they otherwise could (and often want to), they are at times controversial. Additionally, the scope and limits of governments' ability to regulate land use is hard to define with specificity. Courts have held that a zoning regulation is permissible if it is reasonable and not arbitrary; if it bears a reasonable and substantial relation to the public health, safety, comfort, morals, and general welfare; and if the means employed are reasonably necessary for the accomplishment of its purpose.
    ::由于土地使用和分区条例限制所有者使用其财产的权利,而他们本来可以(而且往往希望)使用,因此有时引起争议;此外,政府管理土地使用的能力的范围和限制很难具体界定;法院认为,如果分区条例合理且不任意;如果它与公共健康、安全、舒适、道德和一般福利有合理和实质性的关系;如果所使用的手段对于实现其目的是合理必要的,则区域管制条例是允许的。

    Given the subjective nature of these factors, there is obviously a lot of room for disagreement, and on occasion litigation. One extremely difficult question presented in this area of law is how far land-use regulations may go without running into the constitutional prohibition against   taking private property for public use   without just compensation.
    ::鉴于这些因素的主观性,显然存在很大的分歧空间,有时还存在诉讼空间。 在这一法律领域提出的一个极其困难的问题是,土地使用条例可能走多远,而宪法却禁止将私有财产无偿用于公共用途。

    Challenges to Zoning Regulations
    ::对区划条例的挑战

    There are numerous other restrictions on the power of government to regulate land use, any of which may provide a basis upon which such regulations can be challenged. Zoning ordinances must be reasonable based on all factors involved, such as the need of the municipality; the purpose of the restriction; the location, size, and physical characteristics of the land; the character of the neighborhood; and its effect on the value of the property involved. The rationale behind zoning is that it promotes the good of the entire community in accordance with a comprehensive plan.
    ::对政府管理土地使用的权力还有其他许多限制,其中任何限制都可能为质疑这种规章提供依据,根据所有有关因素,例如市政当局的需要、限制的目的、土地的位置、面积和物理特征、邻里的特点、对所涉财产价值的影响,划区法令必须合理,根据全面计划促进整个社区的利益。

    Spot zoning   of individual parcels of property  in a manner different from that of surrounding property , primarily for the private interests of the owner of the property so zoned, is subject to challenge unless there is a reasonable basis for distinguishing the parcel from surrounding parcels. Restrictions based solely on race or occupancy of property are not permitted, and a classification that discriminates against a racial or religious group can only be upheld if the state demonstrates an overwhelming interest that can be served no other way.
    ::以不同于周围财产的方式对个别财产进行点划分,主要是为了被划为区的财产所有人的个人利益,除非有合理依据将包裹与周围包裹区分开来,否则会受到质疑。 仅基于种族或财产占有的限制是不允许的,歧视种族或宗教团体的分类只有在国家表现出压倒性利益,不能以其他方式达到时才能维持。

    In many jurisdictions, statutes have created boards of   zoning appeals   to handle these issues. These are quasi-judicial bodies that can conduct hearings with sworn testimony by witnesses and whose decisions are subject to court review. Given both the complexity of zoning law and the specialized nature of zoning appeals boards, an owner who contests a zoning requirement is ill-advised to try to argue his or her case without legal assistance.
    ::在许多司法管辖区,法规设立了区划上诉委员会来处理这些问题,它们是准司法机构,可以在证人宣誓作证的情况下进行听证,其决定须经法院审查,鉴于区划法的复杂性和区划上诉委员会的特殊性质,对区划要求提出异议的业主不宜在没有法律援助的情况下试图为其案件辩护。

    Non-Government Restrictions: Restrictive Covenants and Easements
    ::非政府限制:限制性盟约和地役权

    Not all land use restrictions are created by governments. Land developers may also incorporate restrictions in their developments, most commonly through the use of restrictive covenants and easements:
    ::并非所有的土地使用限制都是政府设置的。 土地开发商也可以将限制纳入其发展之中,最常见的办法是使用限制性契约和地役权:

    Restrictive covenants   are provisions in a deed limiting the use of the property and prohibiting certain uses. Restrictive covenants are typically used by land developers to establish minimum house sizes, setback lines, and aesthetic requirements thought to enhance the neighborhood.
    ::限制性契约是限制使用财产和禁止某些用途的契约中的规定,土地开发商通常使用限制性契约来确定最低住房规模、倒退线和美学要求,以加强邻里。

    Easements   are rights to use the property of another for particular purposes. Easements also are now used for public objectives, such as the preservation of open space and conservation. For example, an easement might preclude someone from building on a parcel of land, which leaves the property open and thereby preserves an open green space for the benefit of the public as a whole.
    ::地役权是指为特定目的使用他人财产的权利,地役权现在也用于公共目的,如保护开放空间和保护,例如,地役权可能阻止某人在一块土地上建房,因为地役权使地产开放,从而为全体公众的利益保留开放的绿色空间。

       Evaluate Local  Example
    ::评价本地实例

    Development Plan Threatens El Paso Neighborhood

    lesson content

    Local Preservationists are fighting to save El Paso's Barrio Duranguito from redevelopment.
    ::当地保守主义者正在奋力拯救埃尔帕索的Barrio Durangito的Barrio Durangito重新发展。

      In each Transitions section of     magazine, we highlight places of local and national importance that have recently been restored, are currently threatened, have been saved from demolition or neglect, or have been lost. Here's one from Spring 2017.
    ::在杂志的每一个“过渡”部分,我们强调最近恢复的、目前受到威胁、被拆除或忽视或丢失的具有地方和全国重要性的地方。这是2017年春天开始的。

    The longest-occupied area in El Paso, Texas, is facing a potential threat from an arena development plan put forward by the city.
    ::得克萨斯州埃尔帕索最长被占领地区正面临该市提出的地区发展计划的潜在威胁。

    Barrio Duranguito, located within the larger Union Plaza neighborhood, was established by the early 1900s by migrants from Durango, Mexico. (The oldest existing structure dates to 1879.) The $180 million arena project was proposed in 2012, and in 2016 the city council approved its location in a section of downtown that encompasses part of Duranguito, allowing the city to use eminent domain if necessary. An estimated 150 people could face displacement, sparking an outcry from preservationists and community residents.
    ::1900年代初期,来自墨西哥杜兰戈的移民建立了位于大广场Union Plaza街区内的Barrio Durangito。 (现有历史最悠久的结构日期为1879年。 )2012年提出了1.8亿美元的竞技场项目,2016年,市议会批准了在市中心一个包含杜兰基多部分地区的市中心办公地点,必要时允许该市使用显赫域。 估计有150人可能面临流离失所,引起保护者和社区居民的强烈抗议。

    In December of 2016, the city council voted to rule out that location, sparing the neighborhood, but in early January it released plans for a new feasibility study that once again considered the area viable. The attraction of Duranguito is its proximity to the convention and performing arts center El Paso Live; building the new arena within 1,000 feet of it would allow the city government to take advantage of $25 million in state tax incentives for new hotels over several years.
    ::2016年12月,市议会投票决定排除该地点,让邻里远离,但在1月初公布了新的可行性研究计划,该计划再次认为该区是可行的。 杜兰吉多的吸引力在于它接近了大会和表演艺术中心El Paso Live(El Paso Live ) ; 在1 000英尺的距离内建造新舞台将使市政府能够利用2500万美元的国家税收奖励措施在几年内对新酒店实施。

    The grassroots organization     has been vocal about preserving Duranguito, circulating a petition and organizing protests. As of press time, the feasibility study had been nixed, but Duranguito/Union Plaza was still the city’s preferred site for the arena project.
    ::草根组织一直呼吁保护杜兰基多(Durangito ) , 散发请愿书并组织抗议活动。 截止媒体发布时间,可行性研究已经停止,但杜兰基多/Union Plaza仍是该市竞技场项目的首选场地。

     

     

    Issue for debate - public use vs. private property with political cartoon

     

    Under the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the people are guaranteed, “Life, liberty, and property,” and the protection that no person’s property can be taken by the government for public use without just compensation. The Fifth Amendment does not specifically define the terms “public use” or “just compensation.”  The courts have traditionally upheld the rights of the national and state governments to exercise eminent domain , which is the power of the government to take private property for public use, with the presumption that the property is to serve “the public good." This means it should provide an essential benefit to the entire community. In exchange, the rule of eminent domain requires the government to pay property owners a fair price for the land. When the rights of property owners and the power of the government are at odds, conflicts will naturally arise.
    ::根据《美国宪法第五修正案》,人民有“生命、自由和财产”的保障,以及任何个人的财产不能被政府在没有公正补偿的情况下被公共使用的保护。 第五修正案没有具体界定“公共使用”或“公正赔偿”等术语。 法院传统上维护国家和州政府行使公共领域的权利,即政府有权将私有财产用于公共用途,并推定该财产为“公益”服务。 这意味着它应该为整个社区提供一种基本利益。 换句话说,光荣领域的规则要求政府向地产所有者支付公平的土地价格。 当地产所有者和政府权力发生冲突时,冲突自然会发生。

    Questions for Consideration
    ::供审议的问题

    1. Who should decide what is in “the greater public good?”
      ::由谁来决定“大公共利益”的内容?
    2. Whose rights are more important – the government or the people?
      ::谁的权利更重要? 政府还是人民?
    3. Who determines what constitutes a fair price?
      ::谁来决定什么是公平价格?

    A Practical Example :   Kelo v. the City of New London (2005)
    ::实例:Kelo诉新伦敦市(2005年)

    Video: The Story of Susette Kelo
    ::影片:Susette Kelo的故事

    Source:    
    ::资料来源:

    Attribution: Institute for Justice 
    ::职称: 司法研究所

    In this case, the city of New London, Connecticut condemned the property of Susette Kelo and her neighbors in order to provide for a “comprehensive redevelopment plan” involving a privately funded project. The private developer was ultimately unable to obtain the financing he needed, and the land was turned into a temporary dump. Kelo sued the city of New London claiming her land was taken illegally as it was not used for the “public good.” In a 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court held that the general benefits a community enjoyed from economic growth qualified private redevelopment plans as permissible “public use” under the “Takings Clause of the Fifth Amendment.” Recently, this decision has been used to support the condemnation of public property for a number of private projects.
    ::在本案中,康涅狄格州新伦敦市谴责苏塞特·凯洛及其邻居的财产,以便提供一个涉及私人资助的项目的“全面再发展计划”,私人开发商最终无法获得所需的资金,土地被变成一个临时倾弃场,Kelo起诉新伦敦市,声称她的土地被非法没收,因为它没有用于“公益”。 在一项5-4裁决中,最高法院认定,一个社区从经济增长中获得的一般利益符合“第五修正案条款”允许的私人再发展计划的“公共用途”。 最近,这项决定被用来支持对一些私人项目公共财产的谴责。

    Allowing for the Use of Eminent Domain
    ::允许使用显要域域

    Limiting the use of Eminent Domain
    ::限制使用显要域

    Should economic benefits of private development projects be considered public use under the Fifth Amendment?   In Kelo v. City of New London   (2005), the Supreme Court stated that condemning private residences in order to build a redevelopment project (including shops, restaurants, offices, and a hotel) qualified as “public use.” Since the Fifth Amendment does not provide a specific definition of public use, the Court held that a “broader and more natural interpretation of public use” was sufficient. The court, instead, held “the broader and more natural interpretation of public use as ‘public purpose.’” The reasoning of the Court was that because it was intended to benefit the economic development of the community, the redevelopment plan fit the definition of public use.

    Following the   Kelo   decision, many Americans feared that this ruling gave local government too much authority for the seizure of private property. Many states have passed legislation intended to restrict the use of eminent domain and around four months following the   Kelo   decision, the U.S. House of Representatives passed the Private Property Rights Protection Act. This law specified that public funds would be withheld from state and local governments who chose to exercise eminent domain over property intended for private economic development purposes. The bill does make allowances for public projects such as the building of roads and hospitals and in cases involving abandoned private property.
    ::在作出Kelo决定之后,许多美国人担心这项裁决赋予地方政府过多的没收私有财产的权力,许多州已经通过了旨在限制使用重要土地的立法,在作出Kelo决定之后大约四个月,美国众议院通过了《私有财产权保护法》,该法规定,对于选择为私人经济发展目的对私有财产行使重要土地的州和地方政府,公共资金将被扣留,该法案为修建公路和医院等公共项目以及涉及废弃私有财产的案件提供了补贴。

    To read an article on how eminent domain issues are affecting plans to build a border wall read follow this link: 
    ::阅读一篇关于突出领域问题如何影响修建隔离墙计划的文章,

    Answer the self check questions below to monitor your understanding of the concepts in this section.
    ::回答下面的自我核对问题,以监测你对本节概念的理解。

    Self Check Questions
    ::自查问题

    1. What are the disadvantages of government regulations on a property?
    ::1. 政府对财产的监管有何不利之处?

    2. What are the advantages of government regulations on a property?
    ::2. 政府财产条例有什么好处?

    3. What types of governmental restrictions are made on the use of business and property?
    ::3. 政府对于企业和财产的使用规定了何种类型的限制?

    Learning Extensions
    ::学习推广

    Writing Assignment
    ::书写任务

    If you lived in a community that could benefit from the seizure of private property in order to provide economic benefits such as jobs, shops, restaurants, and other businesses would you be willing to allow your property to be seized through eminent domain if it went to "the public good"? Why/why not?
    ::如果你生活在一个可以从没收私人财产中受益的社区,以便提供诸如工作、商店、餐馆和其他企业等经济利益,那么,如果财产被用于“公益”,你愿意允许通过知名领域没收你的财产吗?为什么/为什么不?

    What if it were another neighborhood in your community and it meant you might benefit from the new jobs created?  How would you feel then?
    ::如果这是你们社区的另一个社区,意味着你们可能从创造的新就业机会中受益呢?那你会有什么感觉呢?

    Classroom Debate
    ::课堂辩论

    Get into groups and conduct more research about the   Kelo   case and others that have followed it. After conducting   your research, conduct a classroom debate about the positive and negative effects of the use of eminent domain for private projects.
    ::对Kelo案和其他跟踪案件进行更多的研究,并进行分组研究。在进行研究之后,就私人项目使用知名域的正面和负面效果进行课堂辩论。 



    CC BY – John M. Seymour (Author); based on case study in Fraga, Luis; The United States Government: Principles in Practice; © 2000, Holt McDougal Publishers; Pg. 13.