3.6 经济增长
Section outline
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Economic Growth
::经济增长 经济增长The size of a nation's economy is commonly expressed as its gross domestic product (GDP), which measures the value of the output of all goods and services produced within the country in a year. GDP is measured by taking the quantities of all goods and services produced, multiplying them by their prices, and summing the total. Since GDP measures what is bought and sold in the economy, it can be measured either by the sum of what is purchased in the economy or what is produced.
::一个国家的经济规模通常以国内生产总值(GDP)来表示,国内生产总值(GDP)用来衡量国内生产的所有商品和服务在一年内的产量价值,国内生产总值(GDP)是用所生产的所有商品和服务的数量、以价格乘以其乘以其价格以及总和来衡量的。 由于国内生产总值(GDP)用来衡量经济中买卖的东西,因此可以用经济中购买的东西或生产的东西的总和来衡量。Universal Generalizations
::普遍化-
The ability of the economy to produce output determines its growth.
::经济生产产出的能力决定其增长。 -
Economic growth is one of the seven major goals of the U.S. economy.
::经济增长是美国经济的七项主要目标之一。 -
Domestic economic growth can also impact foreign nations that the U.S. trades with.
::国内经济增长也可能影响到美国与外国贸易的外国。 -
Economic growth can raise the standard of living, lessen the burden of government, boost foreign trade, and solve domestic problems.
::经济增长可以提高生活水平,减轻政府负担,促进外贸,解决国内问题。
Guiding Questions
::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问-
How are the factors of production impacted by the growth of GDP?
::生产要素如何受到国内生产总值增长的影响? -
What element is most necessary for economic growth? Why?
::经济增长最需要什么因素?为什么? -
Due to changes in population, how is long-term GDP measured?
::由于人口变化,如何衡量长期国内生产总值?
Tracking Real GDP over Time
::跟踪随着时间推移的实际国内生产总值When news reports indicate that “the economy grew 1.2% in the first quarter,” the reports are referring to the percentage change in real GDP. By convention, GDP growth is reported at an annualized rate: Whatever the calculated growth in real GDP was for the quarter, it is multiplied by four when it is reported as if the economy were growing at that rate for a full year.
::当新闻报道显示“第一季度经济增长了1.2% ” 时,报告指的是实际GDP的百分比变化。 按惯例,GDP增长以年化速率报告:不管实际GDP增长率是多少,当报告显示经济全年以该速增长时,GDP增长率会乘以4。Real GDP is important because it is highly correlated with other measures of economic activity, like employment and unemployment. When real GDP rises, so does employment.
::实际GDP之所以重要,是因为它与就业和失业等其他经济活动措施密切相关。 当实际GDP上升时,就业也是如此。The most significant human problem associated with recessions (and their larger, uglier cousins, depressions) is that a slowdown in production means that firms need to lay off or fire some of the workers they have. Losing a job imposes painful financial and personal costs on workers, and often on their extended families as well. In addition, even those who keep their jobs are likely to find that wage raises are scanty at best—or they may even be asked to take pay cuts.
::与衰退(及其较大、更丑的堂兄弟、萧条)相关的最重要的人类问题是,生产放缓意味着企业需要解雇或解雇一些工人。 失业给工人,而且往往给他们的大家庭带来痛苦的财政和个人成本。 此外,即使那些保留工作的人也可能发现工资增长最多也很少 — — 甚至可能被要求削减工资。lists the pattern of recessions and expansions in the U.S. economy since 1900. The highest point of the economy, before the recession begins, is called the peak ; conversely, the lowest point of a recession, before a recovery begins, is called the trough . Thus, a recession lasts from peak to trough, and an economic upswing runs from trough to peak. The movement of the economy from peak to trough and trough to peak is called the business cycle . It is intriguing to notice that the three longest trough-to-peak expansions of the twentieth century have happened since 1960. The most recent recession started in December 2007 and ended formally in June 2009. This was the most severe recession since the Great Depression of the 1930’s.
::美国经济自1900年以来的衰退和扩张模式。 在衰退开始之前,经济的最高点被称为峰值;相反,衰退的最低点,即复苏开始之前的衰退的最低点,被称为低谷。 因此,衰退从高峰持续到低谷,经济从低谷向峰值上升。 经济从高峰到低谷和低谷向峰值的波动被称为商业周期。 令人感兴趣的是,20世纪最长时间的三次次次次次次次次的到高峰扩张自1960年以来就发生了。 最近的一次衰退始于2007年12月,于2009年6月正式结束。 这是自1930年代大萧条以来最严重的衰退。Trough
::槽槽Peak
::峰峰峰Months of Contraction
::承租月数Months of Expansion
::延长月份December 1900
::1900年12月September 1902
::1902年9月 1902年9月18
21
August 1904
::1904年8月May 1907
::1907年5月23
33
June 1908
::1908年6月January 1910
::1910年1月 1910年1月13
19
January 1912
::1912年1月 1912年1月January 1913
::1913年1月 1913年1月24
12
December 1914
::1914年12月August 1918
::1918年8月 1918年8月23
44
March 1919
::1919年3月 1919年3月January 1920
::1920年1月 1920年1月7
10
July 1921
::1921年7月1921日May 1923
::1923年5月18
22
July 1924
::1924年7月1924日October 1926
::1926年10月1926日14
27
November 1927
::1927年11月1927日August 1929
::1929年8月 1929年8月23
21
March 1933
::1933年3月May 1937
::1937年5月1937年5月43
50
June 1938
::1938年6月 1938年6月February 1945
::1945年2月 1945年2月13
80
October 1945
::1945年10月 1945年10月November 1948
::1948年11月 1948年11月8
37
October 1949
::1949年10月 1949年10月July 1953
::1953年7月 1953年7月11
45
May 1954
::1954年5月 1954年5月August 1957
::1957年8月 1957年8月 1957年8月10
39
April 1958
::1958年4月 1958年4月April 1960
::1960年4月 1960年4月8
24
February 1961
::1961年2月 1961年2月December 1969
::1969年12月 1969年12月10
106
November 1970
::1970年11月 1970年11月November 1973
::1973年11月 1973年11月11
36
March 1975
::1975年3月 1975年3月January 1980
::1980年1月 1980年1月16
58
July 1980
::1980年7月 1980年7月July 1981
::1981年7月 1981年7月6
12
November 1982
::1982年11月 1982年11月July 1990
::1990年7月 1990年7月16
92
March 2001
::2001年3月 2001年3月November 2001
::2001年11月 2001年11月8
120
December 2007
::2007年12月June 2009
::2009年6月 2009年6月18
73
U.S. Business Cycles since 1900 (Source: )
A private think tank, the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), is the official tracker of business cycles for the U.S. economy. However, the effects of a severe recession often linger on after the official ending date assigned by the NBER.
::私人智囊团 — — 国家经济研究局(NBER ) — —是美国经济商业周期的正式跟踪者。 然而,严重衰退的影响往往在国家经济研究局(NBER)指定的正式结束日期之后就一直存在。Over the long term, U.S. real GDP has increased dramatically. At the same time, GDP has not increased the same amount each year. The speeding up and slowing down of GDP growth represents the business cycle. When GDP declines significantly, a recession occurs. A longer and deeper decline is a depression. Recessions begin at the peak of the business cycle and end at the trough.
::从长远看,美国实际GDP已经大幅增长。 与此同时,GDP并没有每年同样增长。 GDP增长的加速和放缓代表了商业周期。 当GDP大幅下降时,衰退就会发生。 更长期和更深的衰退是萧条。 衰退始于商业周期的高峰,结束于低谷。Is China Going to Surpass the United States in Terms of Standard of Living?
::中国在生活水平方面是否要超越美国?As shown in , China has the second largest GDP of the countries: $12,406 compared to the United States’ $16,245. Perhaps it will surpass the United States, but probably not any time soon. China has a much larger population so that in per capita terms, its GDP is less than one fifth that of the United States ($9,162 compared to $51,706). The Chinese people are still quite poor relative to the United States and other developed countries. One caveat: For reasons to be discussed shortly, GDP per capita can give us only a rough idea of the differences in living standards across countries.
::如上所示,中国的GDP位居第二:与美国16 245美元相比,中国的GDP为12 406美元,也许将超过美国,但可能不会很快。 中国的人口要多得多,因此人均GDP不到美国的五分之一(从9 162美元到51 706美元 ) 。 相对于美国和其他发达国家而言,中国人民仍然相当贫困。 一个警告是:出于即将讨论的原因,人均GDP只能给我们一个各国生活水平差异的粗略概念。The high-income nations of the world—including the United States, Canada, the Western European countries, and Japan—typically have GDP per capita in the range of $20,000 to $50,000. Middle-income countries, which include much of Latin America, Eastern Europe, and some countries in East Asia, have GDP per capita in the range of $6,000 to $12,000. The low-income countries in the world, many of them located in Africa and Asia, often have GDP per capita of less than $2,000 per year.
::世界高收入国家——包括美国、加拿大、西欧国家和日本——通常人均国内生产总值在20 000美元到50 000美元之间。 中等收入国家,包括拉丁美洲、东欧和东亚的一些国家,人均国内生产总值在6 000美元到12 000美元之间。 世界上的低收入国家,其中许多位于非洲和亚洲,每年人均国内生产总值往往不到2 000美元。Video: Is China the Next Superpower?
::影片:中国是下一个超级大国吗?How Well GDP Measures the Well-Being of Society
::国内生产总值如何更好地衡量社会福祉The level of GDP per capita clearly captures some of what we mean by the phrase “standard of living.” Most of the migration in the world, for example, involves people who are moving from countries with relatively low GDP per capita to countries with relatively high GDP per capita.
::人均GDP水平明确反映了我们所说的“生活水平”一词的某些含义。 例如,世界上的移徙大多涉及从人均GDP相对较低的国家向人均GDP相对较高的国家转移的人。“Standard of living” is a broader term than GDP. While GDP focuses on production that is bought and sold in markets, the standard of living includes all elements that affect people’s well-being, whether they are bought and sold in the market or not. To illuminate the gap between GDP and standard of living, it is useful to spell out some things that GDP does not cover that are clearly relevant to the standard of living.
::“生活标准”是一个比GDP更宽泛的术语。 虽然GDP侧重于市场买卖的生产,但生活水平包含影响人民福祉的所有要素,无论是否在市场上买卖。 为了阐明GDP与生活水平之间的差距,有必要阐明GDP没有涵盖的、显然与生活水平相关的某些内容。Limitations of GDP as a Measure of the Standard of Living
::以国内生产总值为衡量生活水平的限度While GDP includes spending on recreation and travel, it does not cover leisure time. Clearly, however, there is a substantial difference between an economy that is large because people work long hours and an economy that is just as large because people are more productive with their time so they do not have to work as many hours. The GDP per capita of the U.S. economy is larger than the GDP per capita of Germany, as was shown in , but does that prove that the standard of living in the United States is higher? Not necessarily, since it is also true that the average U.S. worker works several hundred hours more per year more than the average German worker. The calculation of GDP does not take the German worker’s extra weeks of vacation into account.
::虽然GDP包括娱乐和旅行开支,但它不包括休闲时间。 但是,显然,由于人们工作时间长而经济规模很大,而由于人们用时间更富产,因此他们不必工作那么长,因此经济规模同样大。 美国经济的人均GDP比德国人均GDP要大,这一点是否证明美国的生活水平更高? 不一定如此,因为美国平均工人每年比德国平均工人多工作几百小时也是事实。 GDP的计算没有考虑到德国工人的额外休假周数。While GDP includes what is spent on environmental protection, healthcare, and education, it does not include actual levels of environmental cleanliness, health, and learning. GDP includes the cost of buying pollution-control equipment, but it does not address whether the air and water are actually cleaner or dirtier. GDP includes spending on medical care but does not address whether life expectancy or infant mortality have risen or fallen. Similarly, it counts spending on education but does not address directly how much of the population can read, write, or do basic mathematics.
::虽然国内生产总值包括用于环境保护、保健和教育的开支,但不包括环境清洁、健康和学习的实际水平。 国内生产总值包括购买污染控制设备的费用,但不包括空气和水实际上是否清洁或更脏。 国内生产总值包括医疗开支,但不包括预期寿命或婴儿死亡率是否上升或下降。 同样,它计为教育开支,但不直接涉及有多少人口能够读、写或做基本数学。GDP includes production that is exchanged in the market, but it does not cover production that is not exchanged in the market. For example, hiring someone to mow your lawn or clean your house is part of GDP, but doing these tasks yourself is not part of GDP. One remarkable change in the U.S. economy in recent decades is that, as of 1970, only about 42% of women participated in the paid labor force. By the second decade of the 2000s, nearly 60% of women participated in the paid labor force according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. As women are now in the labor force, many of the services they used to produce in the non-market economy like food preparation and child care have shifted to some extent into the market economy, which makes the GDP appear larger even if more services are not actually being consumed.
::GDP包括市场上交换的产量,但并不包括市场上没有交换的产量。 比如,雇用人来修剪草坪或清理房子是GDP的一部分,但自己做这些任务不是GDP的一部分。 近几十年来,美国经济的一个显著变化是,截至1970年,只有大约42%的妇女参加了有偿劳动力。 到2000年代的第二个十年,根据劳动统计局的数据,近60%的妇女参加了有偿劳动力。 由于妇女现在在劳动力队伍中,她们过去在非市场经济中生产的许多服务,如食品准备和儿童保育,在某种程度上已经转移到市场经济,这使得即使更多的服务没有被实际消费,国内生产总值也显得更大。GDP has nothing to say about the level of inequality in society. GDP per capita is only an average. When GDP per capita rises by 5%, it could mean that GDP for everyone in the society has risen by 5%, or that of some groups has risen by more while that of others has risen by less—or even declined. GDP also has nothing, in particular, to say about the amount of variety available. If a family buys 100 loaves of bread in a year, GDP does not care whether they are all white bread, or whether the family can choose from wheat, rye, pumpernickel, and many others—it just looks at whether the total amount spent on bread is the same.
::GDP与社会不平等程度无关。 人均GDP仅是平均。 当人均GDP增长5%时,它可能意味着社会上每个人的GDP都增长了5%,或者某些群体的GDP增长更多,而其他人的GDP增长更少 — — 或者甚至有所下降。 GDP也没有任何关于可提供种类数量的信息。 如果一个家庭在一年中购买了100亿块面包,GDP并不关心它们是否都是白面包,或者家庭能否从小麦、黑麦、松饼和其他许多群体中做出选择 — — 它只是看看在面包上花费的总金额是否相同。Likewise, GDP has nothing much to say about what technology and products are available. The standard of living in, for example, 1950 or 1900 was not affected only by how much money people had—it was also affected by what they could buy. No matter how much money you had in 1950, you could not buy an iPhone or a personal computer.
::类似地,GDP对于哪些技术和产品可以提供也没什么可说的。 比如,1950年或1900年的生活水平不仅受到人们有多少钱的影响,而且还受到他们能买到的东西的影响。 无论1950年你有多少钱,你都不能购买iPhone或个人电脑。In certain cases, it is not clear that a rise in GDP is even a good thing. If a city is wrecked by a hurricane, and then experiences a surge of rebuilding construction activity, it would be peculiar to claim that the hurricane was therefore economically beneficial. If people are led by a rising fear of crime, to pay for installation of bars and burglar alarms on all their windows, it is hard to believe that this increase in GDP has made them better off. In that same vein, some people would argue that sales of certain goods, like pornography or extremely violent movies, do not represent a gain to society’s standard of living.
::在某些情况下,GDP的上升甚至不是一件好事。 如果一个城市被飓风摧毁,然后又经历了重建建筑活动的激增,那么就很难说飓风因此在经济上有利可图了。 如果人们被犯罪恐惧感的日益增强所引导,支付在他们所有窗户上安装酒吧和窃贼警报器的费用,那么很难相信GDP的这一增长使他们变得更好。 同样,一些人会说某些商品的销售,如色情制品或极端暴力的电影,并不代表社会生活水平的收益。Does a Rise in GDP Overstate or Understate the Rise in the Standard of Living?
::a 国内生产总值的上升是否是高州或低州生活水平的上升?The fact that GDP per capita does not fully capture the broader idea of the standard of living has led to a concern that the increases in GDP over time are illusory. It is theoretically possible that while GDP is rising, the standard of living could be falling if human health, environmental cleanliness, and other factors that are not included in GDP are worsening. Fortunately, this fear appears to be overstated.
::人均GDP没有充分体现更广泛的生活水平概念,这一事实导致人们担心随着时间推移GDP的增长是虚幻的。 理论上说,当GDP在上升时,如果人类健康、环境清洁性以及未列入GDP的其他因素在恶化,生活水平可能会下降。 幸运的是,这种担忧似乎被夸大了。In some ways, the rise in GDP understates the actual rise in the standard of living. For example, the typical workweek for a U.S. worker has fallen over the last century from about 60 hours per week to less than 40 hours per week. Life expectancy and health have risen dramatically, and so has the average level of education. Since 1970, the air and water in the United States has generally been getting cleaner. New technologies have been developed for entertainment, travel, information, and health. A much wider variety of basic products like food and clothing are available today than several decades ago. Because GDP does not capture leisure, health, a cleaner environment, the possibilities created by new technology, or an increase in variety, the actual rise in the standard of living for Americans in recent decades has exceeded the rise in GDP.
::在某些方面,GDP的上升低估了生活水平的实际提高。例如,上个世纪,美国工人的典型每周工作时间从每周约60小时下降到每周不到40小时;预期寿命和健康大幅提高,平均教育水平也大幅提高;1970年以来,美国的空气和水普遍变得清洁;娱乐、旅行、信息和健康新技术已经开发;如今,食品和服装等基本产品种类比几十年前要广泛得多。 由于GDP无法捕捉休闲、健康、清洁环境、新技术创造的可能性或种类的增加,近几十年来美国人生活水平的实际提高超过了GDP的增长。On the other side, rates of crime, levels of traffic congestion, and inequality of incomes are higher in the United States now than they were in the 1960s. Additionally, a substantial number of services that used to be provided, primarily by women, in the non-market economy are now part of the market economy that is counted by GDP. By ignoring these factors, GDP would tend to overstate the true rise in the standard of living.
::另一方面,美国的犯罪率、交通堵塞和收入不平等比1960年代要高。 此外,过去主要由妇女提供的大量非市场经济服务如今已成为以GDP计算的市场经济的一部分。 无视这些因素,GDP往往会夸大生活水平的真正提高。GDP is Rough, but Useful
::国内生产总值粗略,但有用A high level of GDP should not be the only goal of macroeconomic policy or government policy more broadly. Even though GDP does not measure the broader standard of living with any precision, it does measure production well and it does indicate when a country is materially better or worse off in terms of jobs and incomes. In most countries, a significantly higher GDP per capita occurs hand in hand with other improvements in everyday life along with many dimensions, like education, health, and environmental protection.
::高水平的国内生产总值不应该成为宏观经济政策或更广泛的政府政策的唯一目标,即使GDP不精确地衡量更广泛的生活水平,它也确实衡量了生产,它确实表明一个国家在就业和收入方面何时在物质上好或坏。 在大多数国家,人均国内生产总值高得多与日常生活的其他改善以及教育、卫生和环境保护等许多方面同时发生。No single number can capture all the elements of a term as broad as “standard of living.” Nonetheless, GDP per capita is a reasonable, rough-and-ready measure of the standard of living.
::没有任何一个数字能够包含“生活水平”等广泛术语的所有要素。 尽管如此,人均GDP是衡量生活水平的合理、粗略和准备就绪的尺度。How is the Economy Doing? How Does One Tell?
::经济情况如何?如何说明?To determine the state of the economy, one needs to examine economic indicators, such as GDP. To calculate GDP is quite an undertaking. It is the broadest measure of a nation’s economic activity and we owe a debt to Simon Kuznets, the creator of the measurement, for that.
::为了确定经济状况,人们需要研究经济指标,比如GDP。 计算GDP是一个相当艰巨的任务。 这是衡量一个国家经济活动的最宽泛的尺度,因此,我们欠衡量标准创建者西蒙·库兹涅茨(Simon Kuznets)的债务。The sheer size of the U.S. economy as measured by GDP is huge—as of the third quarter of 2013, $16.6 trillion worth of goods and services were produced annually. Real GDP informed us that the recession of 2008–2009 was a severe one and that the recovery from that has been slow, but is improving. GDP per capita gives a rough estimate of a nation’s standard of living.
::以GDP衡量的美国经济规模巨大 — — 截至2013年第三季度,每年生产16.6万亿美元商品和服务。 实际GDP告诉我们,2008-2009年的衰退是一场严重的衰退,复苏缓慢,但正在改善。 人均GDP粗略估计了一个国家的生活水平。GDP is an indicator of a society’s standard of living, but it is only a rough indicator. GDP does not directly take account of leisure, environmental quality, levels of health and education, activities conducted outside the market, changes in inequality of income, increases in variety, increases in technology, or the (positive or negative) value that society may place on certain types of output.
::GDP是社会生活水平的一个指标,但这只是一个粗略的指标。 GDP没有直接考虑到休闲、环境质量、健康和教育水平、市场外活动、收入不平等的变化、多样性的增加、技术的提高、或社会可能对某些产出类型的(正或负)价值。Comparing GDP among Countries
::国与国之间的国内生产总值比较It is common to use GDP as a measure of economic welfare or standard of living in a nation. When comparing the GDP of different nations for this purpose, two issues immediately arise. First, the GDP of a country is measured in its own currency: the United States uses the U.S. dollar; Canada, the Canadian dollar; most countries of Western Europe, the euro; Japan, the yen; Mexico, the peso; and so on. Thus, comparing GDP between two countries requires converting to a common currency. A second issue is that countries have very different numbers of people. For instance, the United States has a much larger economy than Mexico or Canada, but it also has roughly three times as many people as Mexico and nine times as many people as Canada. So, if we are trying to compare standards of living across countries, we need to divide GDP by population.
::将国内生产总值作为衡量一国经济福利或生活水平的尺度是常见的。当为此目的比较不同国家的国内生产总值时,立即出现两个问题。首先,一个国家的国内生产总值是以本国货币衡量的:美国使用美元;加拿大使用加拿大美元;西欧大多数国家使用欧元;日本使用日元;墨西哥使用比索;等等。因此,将两个国家的国内生产总值进行比较需要转换成共同货币。第二个问题是,国家的人口数量非常不同。例如,美国的经济比墨西哥或加拿大要大得多,但它也有大约三倍的墨西哥人口和九倍的加拿大人口。因此,如果我们试图将各国的生活水平作比较,我们需要按人口来区分国内生产总值。Converting Currencies with Exchange Rates
::以汇率转换货币To compare the GDP of countries with different currencies, it is necessary to convert to a “common denominator” using an exchange rate, which is the value of one currency in terms of another currency. Exchange rates are expressed either as the units of country A’s currency that needs to be traded for a single unit of country B’s currency (for example, Japanese yen per British pound ), or as the inverse (for example, British pounds per Japanese yen). Two types of exchange rates can be used for this purpose, market exchange rates and purchasing power parity (PPP) equivalent exchange rates. Market exchange rates vary on a day-to-day basis depending on supply and demand in foreign exchange markets. PPP-equivalent exchange rates provide a longer run measure of the exchange rate. For this reason, PPP-equivalent exchange rates are typically used for cross-country comparisons of GDP.
::为了比较使用不同货币的国家的国内生产总值,有必要使用一种汇率(即一种货币以另一种货币计算的价值)转换成一种“共同分母 ” 。 汇率的表示方式要么是A国的货币单位,需要用B国的单一货币单位进行交易(例如,每英磅日元),要么是反之(例如,每日日元英镑 ) 。 为此目的,可以使用两种汇率,即市场汇率和购买力平价等值的汇率。 市场汇率根据外汇市场的供求情况而依日不同而异。 购买力平价等值汇率是衡量汇率的长期尺度。 因此,购买力平价等值汇率通常用于对国内生产总值进行跨国比较。Converting GDP to a Common Currency
::将国内生产总值转换成共同货币Using the exchange rate to convert GDP from one currency to another is straightforward. Say that the task is to compare Brazil’s GDP in 2012 of 4,403 billion reals with the U.S. GDP of $16,245 trillion for the same year.
::使用汇率将GDP从一种货币转换为另一种货币是直截了当的。 这么说,我们的任务是将2012年巴西4,403亿实际GDP与美国当年的16,245万亿美元GDP相比较。Step 1. Determine the exchange rate for the specified year. In 2012, the exchange rate was 1.869 reals = $1. (These numbers are realistic, but rounded off to simplify the calculations.)
::步骤1. 确定指定年份的汇率:2012年的汇率为1.869实值=1美元。 (这些数字切合实际,但四舍五入,以简化计算。 )Step 2. Convert Brazil’s GDP into U.S. dollars:
::步骤2. 将巴西国内生产总值换算成美元:Brazil's GDP in $ U.S. = Brazil's GDP in reals
::巴西以美元计算的国内生产总值 = 巴西以实值计算的国内生产总值Exchange rate (reals/$ U.S.)
::汇率(实际/美元)= 4,403 billion reals
::=4 403亿实际数1.869 reals per $ U.S.
::美国每美元1.869美元= $2,355.8 billion
::=23 558亿美元Step 3. Compare this value to the GDP in the United States in the same year. The U.S. GDP was $16,245 in 2012 which is nearly seven times that of GDP in Brazil in 2012.
::步骤3. 与同年美国国内生产总值相比,2012年美国国内生产总值为16 245美元,是2012年巴西国内生产总值的近七倍。Step 4. View which shows the size of and variety of GDPs of different countries in 2012, all expressed in U.S. dollars. Each is calculated using the process explained above.
::4. 显示2012年不同国家国内生产总值规模和种类的视角,全部以美元表示,每个单位使用上述流程计算。Country
::国家GDP in Billions of Domestic Currency
::国内生产总值(GDP) 10亿国内货币Domestic Currency/U.S. Dollars(PPP Equivalent)
::国内货币/美元(购买力平价等值)GDP (in billions of U.S. dollars)
:单位:10亿美元)
Brazil
::巴西 巴西4,403
reals
::实际数1.869
2,356
Canada
::加拿大 加拿大 加拿大1,818
dollars
::美元1.221
1,488
China
::中国 中国 中国 中国 中国 中国 中国51,932
yuan
::人民币4.186
12,406
Egypt
::埃及 埃及 埃及 埃及 埃及1,542
pounds
::磅2.856
540
Germany
::德国 德国2,644
euros
::欧元0.827
3,197
India
::印度 印度 印度97,514
rupees
::卢比20.817
4,684
Japan
::日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本475,868
yen
::日圆102.826
4,628
Mexico
::墨西哥 墨西哥 墨西哥 墨西哥 墨西哥15,502
pesos
::比索8.813
1,759
South Korea
::南韩1,302,128
won
::韩 元数806.81
1,614
United Kingdom
::联合王国 联合王国 联合王国 联合王国 联合王国1,539
pounds
::磅0.659
2,336
United States
::美国 美国 美国 美国16,245
dollars
::美元1.000
16,245
Comparing GDPs Across Countries, 2012
(Source: )
GDP Per Capita
::人均国内生产总值The U.S. economy has the largest GDP in the world, by a considerable amount. The United States is also a populous country; in fact, it is the third largest country by population in the world, although well behind China and India. So is the U.S. economy larger than other countries just because the United States has more people than most other countries, or because the U.S. economy is actually larger on a per-person basis? This question can be answered by calculating a country’s GDP per capita; that is, the GDP divided by the population.
::美国经济拥有世界上最大的GDP,其数量相当可观。 美国也是一个人口众多的国家;事实上,它是世界上人口第三大的国家,尽管远远落后于中国和印度。 美国经济也比其他国家大,仅仅因为美国比大多数其他国家人口多,或者因为美国经济实际人均规模较大? 这个问题可以通过计算一个国家的人均GDP来解答,也就是说,GDP除以人口。GDP per capita = GDP/population
::人均国内总产值=国内总产值/人口The second column of lists the GDP of the same selection of countries that appear in and , showing their GDP as converted into U.S. dollars (which is the same as the last column of the previous table). The third column gives the population for each country. The fourth column lists the GDP per capita. GDP per capita is obtained in two steps: First, by dividing column two (GDP, in billions of dollars) by 1000 so it has the same units as column three (Population, in millions). Then dividing the result (GDP in millions of dollars) by column three (Population, in millions).
::第二栏列出在同一选定国家中出现并显示其国内生产总值换算成美元(与上表最后一栏相同)的国内总产值,第三栏列出每个国家的人口,第四栏列出人均国内总产值,人均国内总产值分两个步骤获得:第一,将第二栏(国内总产值,以10亿美元计)除以1 000,因此其单位与第三栏(人口,以百万计)相同,然后将结果(国内总产值,以百万美元计)除以第三栏(人口,以百万计)。Country
::国家GDP (in billions of U.S. dollars)
:单位:10亿美元)
Population (in millions)
::人口(百万)Per Capita GDP (in U.S. dollars)
::人均国内生产总值(单位:美元)Brazil
::巴西 巴西2,356
198.36
11,875
Canada
::加拿大 加拿大 加拿大1,488
34.83
42,734
China
::中国 中国 中国 中国 中国 中国 中国12,406
1354.04
9,162
Egypt
::埃及 埃及 埃及 埃及 埃及540
82.50
6,545
Germany
::德国 德国3,197
81.90
39,028
India
::印度 印度 印度4,684
1223.17
3,830
Japan
::日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本4,628
127.61
36,266
Mexico
::墨西哥 墨西哥 墨西哥 墨西哥 墨西哥1,614
50.01
32,272
South Korea
::南韩1,759
114.87
15,312
United Kingdom
::联合王国 联合王国 联合王国 联合王国 联合王国2,336
63.24
36,941
United States
::美国 美国 美国 美国16,245
314.18
51,706
GDP Per Capita, 2012
(Source: )
Notice that the ranking by GDP is different from the ranking by GDP per capita. India has a somewhat larger GDP than Germany, but on a per capita basis, Germany has more than 10 times India’s standard of living. Will China soon have a better standard of living than the U.S.?
::注意GDP的排名不同于人均GDP的排名。 印度的GDP略高于德国,但按人均计算,德国的生活水平是印度的10倍以上。 中国的生活水平是否会很快比美国更好?Since GDP is measured in a country’s currency, in order to compare different countries’ GDPs, we need to convert them to a common currency. One way to do that is with the exchange rate, which is the price of one country’s currency in terms of another. Once GDPs are expressed in a common currency, we can compare each country’s GDP per capita by dividing GDP by population. Countries with large populations often have large GDPs, but GDP alone can be a misleading indicator of the wealth of a nation. A better measure is GDP per capita.
::由于GDP是以一个国家的货币衡量的,为了比较不同国家的GDP,我们需要把它们转换成一种共同货币。 一种方法就是汇率,即一国货币以另一个货币计算的价格。 一旦GDP以共同货币表示,我们就能用人口来将每个国家的人均GDP除以人口来比较。 人口众多的国家往往拥有大量的GDP,但单是GDP就有可能误导一个国家的财富。 更好的衡量标准是人均GDP。Answer the self check questions below to monitor your understanding of the concepts in this section.
::回答下面的自我核对问题,以监测你对本节概念的理解。Self Check Questions
::自查问题1. Define "real GDP per capita".
::1. 定义“人均实际国内生产总值”。2. How is real GDP calculated?
::2. 如何计算实际国内生产总值?3. How can GDP and population influence output?
::3. 国内生产总值和人口如何影响产出?4. Define the term "standard of living".
::4. 界定“生活水准”一词的定义。5. Define the term "tax base".
::5. 界定“税基”一词的定义。6. Define the term "renewable resources".
::6. 界定“可再生资源”一词的定义。7. What is "capital-to-labor ratio"?
::7. 什么是 " 资本对实验室比率 " ?8. Define the term "labor productivity".
::8. 界定“劳动生产率”一词的定义。 -
The ability of the economy to produce output determines its growth.