3.13 就业趋势和问题
Section outline
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Employment Trends and Issues
::就业趋势和问题Historically, there has been a love-hate relationship with unions. Unions have made it possible for workers in the United States to have safe working conditions, better pay, shorter hours, and additional benefits. On the other hand, unions are sometimes perceived as troublemakers when they take action against their employers by going on strike or forcing employers to have a closed shop and only hiring those people in the union. In addition, the cost of American made union products may be higher than products made by other workers, which could, in fact, harm the overall sales of those union made goods
::从历史上看,工会与工会之间一直存在着一种爱恨关系。 工会使得美国工人有可能拥有安全的工作条件、更好的薪酬、更短的工时和额外的福利。 另一方面,工会有时在对雇主采取行动时被视为麻烦制造者,因为工会罢工或强迫雇主开一个封闭的商店,并且只雇用工会中的这些人。 此外,美国制造的工会产品的成本可能高于其他工人的产品,这实际上会损害工会制造的货物的整体销售。Universal Generalizations
::普遍化-
Issues surrounding employment, unions, pay, and discrimination change over time.
::围绕就业、工会、工资和歧视的问题随着时间而变化。
Guiding Questions
::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问-
How have unions become victims of their own success?
::工会如何成为其自身成功的受害者? -
Why has the federal government created legislation regarding wages and discrimination?
::为什么联邦政府制定了关于工资和歧视的立法? -
Which economic issues do you believe are the most important for the government to deal with?
::你认为哪些经济问题是政府要处理的最重要的问题?
Labor-Leisure Choices
::劳动保障选择People do not obtain utility just from products they purchase. They also obtain utility from leisure time. Leisure time is time not spent at work. The decision-making process of a utility-maximizing household applies to what quantity of hours to work in much the same way that it applies to purchases of goods and services. Choices made along the labor-leisure budget constraint, as wages shift, provide the logical underpinning for the labor supply curve. This discussion also offers some insights about the range of possible reactions when people receive higher wages, and specifically about the claim that if people are paid higher wages, they will work a greater quantity of hours—assuming that they have a say in the matter.
::人们不能仅仅从他们所购买的产品中获得效用,他们也可以从闲暇时间获得效用。闲暇时间不是工作时间。公用事业最大化家庭的决策程序适用于与购买商品和服务同样多的工时。根据劳动休息预算限制(如工资变动)所作的选择为劳动力供应曲线提供了逻辑基础。这种讨论还使人们对工资较高时可能的反应范围有所了解,具体地说,如果人们得到更高的工资,他们就会工作更多小时,假设他们在这个问题上有发言权。According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. workers averaged 38.5 hours per week on the job in 2013. This average includes part-time workers; for full-time workers only, the average was 42.5 hours per week. 1 shows that more than half of all workers are on the job 35 to 48 hours per week, but significant proportions work more or less than this amount.
::根据劳动统计局的数据,2013年,美国工人每周平均工作38.5小时,包括非全日工人;仅全日工人每周平均42.5小时。 1 1显示,一半以上的工人每周工作35至48小时,但相当大比例的工作或多或少于这一数量。1 breaks down the average hourly compensation received by private industry workers, including wages and benefits. Wages and salaries are about three-quarters of total compensation received by workers; the rest is in the form of health insurance, vacation pay, and other benefits. The compensation workers receive differs for many reasons, including experience, education, skill, talent, membership in a labor union, and the presence of discrimination against certain groups in the labor market.
::工资和工资约为工人所得报酬总额的四分之三;其余以健康保险、假期工资和其他福利的形式提供;由于经验、教育、技能、人才、加入工会以及劳动力市场对某些群体存在歧视等多种原因,补偿工人所得报酬不尽相同。Hours Worked per Week
::每周工作时数Number of Workers
::工人人数Percentage of Workforce
::劳动力百分比1–14 hours
::1时至14时6.9 million
::690万5.0%
15–34 hours
::15时-3时34分27.6 million
::2 760万20.1%
35–40 hours
::35时至40时68.5 million
::6 850万49.9%
41–48 hours
::41至48小时11.9 million
::1 190万8.6%
49–59 hours
::49-59小时13.3 million
::1 330万9.6%
60 hours and over
::60小时及以上9.3 million
::930万6.8%
Persons at Work, by Average Hours Worked per Week in 2013 (Total number of workers: 137.7 million)(Source: )
Compensation and Benefits
::补偿和津贴Hourly Amount
::每小时数额Wages and salaries
::工资和薪金$21.50
Vacation and holiday pay
::假期和假日工资$1.72
Sick leave and other leave
::病假和其他假期$0.45
Bonuses and premium pay
::奖金和保险费$0.73
Employee insurance (mainly health)
::雇员保险(主要是健康保险)$2.81
Retirement plans
::退休计划退休计划$1.47
Employer payments to Social Security
::雇主对社会保障的付款$1.39
Unemployment and worker's compensation insurance
::失业和工人补偿保险$0.67
Other benefits (Medicare)
::其他福利(医疗)$0.35
Total compensation per hour
::每小时报酬总额$31.09
Hourly Compensation: Wages, Benefits, and Taxes in 2013(Source: http://www.bls.gov/news.release/ecec.nr0.htm)
The Labor-Leisure Budget Constraint
::限制劳动 -- -- 放松劳动 -- -- 预算How do workers make decisions about the number of hours to work? Again, let’s proceed with a concrete example. The economic logic is precisely the same as in the case of a consumption choice budget constraint, but the labels are different on a labor-leisure budget constraint.
::工人如何决定工作时数? 再说一次,让我们举个具体的例子。 经济逻辑与消费选择预算限制完全相同,但劳动休息预算限制的标签却不同。Vivian has 70 hours per week that she could devote either to work or to leisure. Her wage is $10/hour. The lower budget constraint in 1 shows Vivian’s possible choices. The horizontal axis of this diagram measures both leisure and labor by showing how Vivian’s time is divided between leisure and labor. Hours of leisure are measured from left to right on the horizontal axis, while hours of labor are measured from right to left. Vivian will compare choices along this budget constraint, ranging from 70 hours of leisure and no income at point S to zero hours of leisure and $700 of income at point L. She will choose the point that provides her with the highest total utility. For this example, let’s assume that Vivian’s utility-maximizing choice occurs at O, with 30 hours of leisure, 40 hours of work, and $400 in weekly income.
::薇薇安每周有70小时可以用于工作或休闲。她的工资是每小时10美元。一个较低的预算限制显示了薇薇安可能的选择。本图表的横向轴线通过显示薇薇安的时间如何在休闲和劳动之间分配来衡量休闲和劳动。 休闲时间从左到右在横向轴线上测量,而工时则从右到左测量。 薇薇安将对照这一预算限制来比较各种选择,从S点70小时的闲暇和零小时的收入到零小时的闲暇,到L点的700小时的收入。 她将选择为她提供最高总效用的点。 比如,让我们假设薇薇安的效用最大化选择发生在O,有30小时的闲暇、40小时的工作和400美元的每周收入。How a Rise in Wages Alters the Utility-Maximizing Choice
::a) 工资提高如何影响利用最大化选择Vivian’s original choice is point O on the lower opportunity set. A rise in her wage causes her opportunity set to swing upward. In response to the increase in wages, Vivian can make a range of different choices available to her: a choice like D, which involves less work; and a choice like B, which involves the same amount of work but more income; or a choice like A, which involves more work and considerably more income. Vivian’s personal preferences will determine which choice she makes.
::薇薇安最初的选择是低机会设定的O点。 工资的上升导致她的机会向上波动。 作为对工资增长的回应,薇薇安可以做出一系列不同的选择:D类选择,这涉及较少的工作;B类选择,它涉及同样数量的工作,但收入却更多;A类选择,它涉及更多的工作和更多的收入。 薇薇安的个人偏好将决定她所做的选择。For Vivian to discover the labor-leisure choice that will maximize her utility, she does not have to place numerical values on the total and marginal utility that she would receive from every level of income and leisure. All that really matters is that Vivian can compare, in her own mind, whether she would prefer more leisure or more income, given the tradeoffs she faces. If Vivian can say to herself: “I’d really rather work a little less and have more leisure, even if it means less income,” or “I’d be willing to work more hours to make some extra income,” then as she gradually moves in the direction of her preferences, she will seek out the utility-maximizing choice on her labor-leisure budget constraint.
::要想让薇薇安发现劳动休养的选择能够最大限度地增加她的效用,她不必在她从收入和闲暇的各个层次得到的总和边际的效用上设定数字值。 真正重要的是,薇薇安能够以她自己的思维来比较她是否更喜欢闲暇或更多的收入,因为她面对的权衡。 如果薇薇安可以对自己说 : “ 我宁愿少工作一点,多闲暇一点,即使这意味着收入较少,”或者“我愿意多工作几个小时来创造一些额外收入,”那么当她逐渐走向其偏好的方向时,她将寻求在劳动休养预算限制方面实现最大用途的选择。Now imagine that Vivian’s wage level increases to $12/hour. A higher wage will mean a new budget constraint that tilts up more steeply; conversely, a lower wage would have led to a new budget constraint that was flatter. How will a change in the wage and the corresponding shift in the budget constraint affect Vivian’s decisions about how many hours to work?
::现在想象一下,薇薇安的工资水平将提高到每小时12美元。 更高的工资将意味着新的预算限制,这种限制会更急剧地上升;相反,低工资会导致新的预算限制,而这种限制是受宠若惊的。 工资的改变和相应的预算限制的改变将如何影响薇薇安关于多少工时的决定?Vivian’s choices of quantity of hours to work and income along her new budget constraint can be divided into several categories, using the dashed horizontal and vertical lines in 1 that go through her original choice (O). One set of choices in the upper-left portion of the new budget constraint involves more hours of work (that is, less leisure) and more income, at a point like A with 20 hours of leisure, 50 hours of work, and $600 of income (that is, 50 hours of work multiplied by the new wage of $12 per hour). A second choice would be to work exactly the same 40 hours, and to take the benefits of the higher wage in the form of income that would now be $480, at choice B. A third choice would involve more leisure and the same income at point C (that is, 33-1/3 hours of work multiplied by the new wage of $12 per hour equals $400 of total income). A fourth choice would involve less income and much more leisure at a point like D, with a choice like 50 hours of leisure, 20 hours of work, and $240 in income.
::薇薇安在新的预算限制下选择工作时数和收入的数量可以分为几类,使用她最初选择(O)时数的1个倒数水平和垂直线。 新的预算限制中左上部分的一组选择涉及更多工作时间(即少闲暇)和更多收入,在A类20小时闲暇、50小时工作、600美元收入(即50小时工作乘以每小时12美元的新工资 ) 。 第二种选择是完全相同的40小时工作,并以收入形式享受较高工资的福利,现在选择B类为480美元。 第三个选择涉及更多闲暇和C类相同收入(即33-3小时工作乘以相当于总收入400美元的新工资12小时)。 第四个选择涉及在D类地点减少收入和更多休闲,选择有50小时闲暇、20小时工作和240美元收入。In effect, Vivian can choose whether to receive the benefits of her wage increase in the form of more income, or more leisure, or some mixture of these two. With this range of possibilities, it would be unwise to assume that Vivian (or anyone else) will necessarily react to a wage increase by working substantially more hours. Maybe they will; maybe they will not.
::实际上,薇薇安可以选择以收入增加、休闲或两者的某种混合形式来享受工资增长带来的福利。 有了这种可能性,假设薇薇安(或其他任何人)通过工作时间长得多的工作时间必然对工资增长作出反应是不明智的。 也许他们会,也许他们不会。Applications of Utility Maximizing with the Labor-Leisure Budget Constraint
::最大限度利用劳动-放松劳动预算限制的效用应用The theoretical insight that higher wages will sometimes cause an increase in hours worked, sometimes cause hours worked not to change by much, and sometimes cause hours worked to decline, has led to labor supply curves that look like the one in 2. The bottom-left portion of the labor supply curve slopes upward, which reflects the situation of a person who reacts to a higher wage by supplying a greater quantity of labor. The middle, close-to-vertical portion of the labor supply curve reflects the situation of a person who reacts to a higher wage by supplying about the same quantity of labor. The very top portion of the labor supply curve is called a backward-bending supply curve for labor, which is the situation of high-wage people who can earn so much that they respond to a still-higher wage by working fewer hours. Read the following Clear It Up feature for more on the number of hours the average person works each year.
::理论上认为,高工资有时会导致工时增加,有时造成工时不变化,有时造成工时减少,这导致了劳动力供应曲线,看起来与2中的情况相似,劳动力供应曲线的左下角向上倾斜,这反映了一个人通过提供更多劳动力对高工资作出反应的情况。劳动力供应曲线的中间、近乎纵向部分反映了一个人对高工资作出反应,提供同样数量劳动力的情况。劳动力供应曲线的顶端部分称为劳动力逆向供应曲线,即高工资人群的情况,他们能够以更少的工时赚取如此多的收入,从而以更短的工时对仍然较高的工资作出反应。 阅读后面的Clear It Up 特征是每年平均工作时数的增加。- A Backward-Bending Supply Curve of Labor
The bottom upward-sloping portion of the labor supply curve shows that as wages increase over this range, the quantity of hours worked also increases. The middle, nearly vertical portion of the labor supply curve shows that as wages increase over this range, the quantity of hours worked changes very little. The backward-bending portion of the labor supply curve at the top shows that as wages increase over this range, the quantity of hours worked actually decreases. All three of these possibilities can be derived from how a change in wages causes movement in the labor-leisure budget constraint, and thus different choices by individuals.
::劳动力供给曲线底部向上移动部分表明,随着工资在这一幅度内的增长,工作时数也随之增加。 劳动力供给曲线的中、近垂直部分表明,随着工资在这一幅度内的增长,工作时数的变化很小。 顶层劳动力供给曲线的后向延伸部分表明,随着工资在这一幅度内的增长,工作时数的实际减少。 所有这些可能性都可以从工资变化如何导致劳动休息预算限制的变动,从而导致个人的不同选择中得出。Is America a Nation of Workaholics?
::美国是工作狂国家吗?Americans work a great deal. 2 shows average hours worked per year in the United States, Canada, Japan, and several European countries, with most of the data from 2008. To get a perspective on these numbers, someone who works 40 hours per week for 50 weeks per year, with two weeks off, would work 2,000 hours per year. The gap in hours worked is a little astonishing; the 250 to 300 hour gap between how much Americans work and how much Germans or the French work amounts to roughly six to seven weeks less of work per year. Economists who study these international patterns debate the extent to which average Americans and Japanese have a preference for working more than, say, Germans, or whether German workers and employers face particular kinds of taxes and regulations that lead to fewer hours worked. Many countries have laws that regulate the work week and dictate holidays and the standards of “normal” vacation time vary from country to country. It is also interesting to take the amount of time spent working in context; it is estimated that in the late nineteenth-century in the United States, the average work week was over 60 hours per week—leaving little to no time for leisure.
::美国人工作非常多。 2 显示美国、加拿大、日本和几个欧洲国家每年平均工作时间。 2 显示美国、加拿大、日本和几个欧洲国家每年平均工作时间。 2008年以来的大部分数据都是如此。 要了解这些数字,每周工作40小时,每年工作50周,每两周休息2 000小时,每年工作2 000小时。工作时数的差距是有点惊人的;美国人工作多少与德国人或法国工作多少之间的250至300小时差距大约比每年工作6至7周少。研究这些国际模式的经济学家们辩论平均美国人和日本人更喜欢工作的程度,比德国人多得多,或者德国工人和雇主是否面临特殊种类的税收和条例,导致工作时间减少。许多国家的法律对工作周作出规定,规定节假日和“正常”休假时间的标准因国而异。同样有趣的是,在19世纪末,美国的平均工作周超过60小时,几乎没有时间闲暇。Country
::国家Average Annual Hours Actually Worked per Employed Person
::人均就业人员实际工作年平均小时数United States
::美国 美国 美国 美国1,824
Spain
::西班牙 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙1,799
Japan
::日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本1,759
Canada
::加拿大 加拿大 加拿大1,751
United Kingdom
::联合王国 联合王国 联合王国 联合王国 联合王国1,669
Sweden
::瑞典 瑞典 瑞典 瑞典1,585
Germany
::德国 德国1,443
France
::法国 法国 法国 法国 法国 法国1,441
Average Hours Worked Per Year in Select Countries(Source: )
The different responses to a rise in wages—more hours worked, the same hours worked, or fewer hours worked—are patterns exhibited by different groups of workers in the U.S. economy. Many full-time workers have jobs where the number of hours is held relatively fixed, partly by their own choice and partly by their employer’s practices. These workers do not much change their hours worked as wages rise or fall, so their supply curve of labor is inelastic. However, part-time workers and younger workers tend to be more flexible in their hours, and they are more ready to increase hours worked when wages are high or cut back when wages fall.
::对工资上升的不同反应 — — 工时增加、工时相同或工时较少 — — 是美国经济中不同工人群体所表现出的模式。 许多全职工人的工作时间相对固定,部分由他们自己选择,部分由雇主做法决定。 这些工人的工时不会随着工资的上升或下降而发生很大变化,因此他们的劳动力供应曲线是无弹性的。 然而,非全日制工人和年轻工人在工时上往往比较灵活,在工资高或工资下降时减少时,他们更愿意增加工时。The backward-bending supply curve for labor, when workers react to higher wages by working fewer hours and having more income, is not observed often in the short run. However, some well-paid professionals, like dentists or accountants, may react to higher wages by choosing to limit the number of hours, perhaps by taking especially long vacations, or taking every other Friday off. Over a long-term perspective, the backward-bending supply curve for labor is common. Over the last century, Americans have reacted to gradually rising wages by working fewer hours; for example, the length of the average work-week has fallen from about 60 hours per week in 1900 to the present average of less than 40 hours per week.
::劳动力的后向供应曲线,即当工人通过减少工作时间和增加收入来应对高工资时,短期内并不经常观察到。 但是,一些高薪专业人员,如牙医或会计师,可能选择限制工时,或许可以选择特别长的假期,或每隔一个星期五休息,从而对高工资作出反应。 从长远角度看,劳动力的后向供应曲线是常见的。 上个世纪,美国人对工资逐步增加的反应是减少工时;例如,平均每周工作时间从1900年的每周60小时减少到目前的每周平均不到40小时。Recognizing that workers have a range of possible reactions to a change in wages casts some fresh insight on a perennial political debate: the claim that a reduction in income taxes—which would, in effect, allow people to earn more per hour—will encourage people to work more. The leisure-income budget set points out that this connection will not hold true for all workers. Some people, especially part-timers, may react to higher wages by working more. Many will work the same number of hours. Some people, especially those whose incomes are already high, may react to the tax cut by working fewer hours. Of course, cutting taxes may be a good or a bad idea for a variety of reasons, not only because of its impact on work incentives, but also the specific claim that tax cuts will lead people to work more hours is only likely to hold for specific groups of workers and will depend on how and for whom taxes are cut.
::认识到工人对工资变化有一系列可能的反应,对常年的政治辩论产生了一些新的见解:所得税的削减实际上会使人们每小时挣更多钱,这将鼓励人们增加工作;闲暇收入预算指出,这一联系不会适用于所有工人;一些人,特别是非全时工人,可能通过更多工作对更高的工资作出反应;许多人工作时数相同;一些人,特别是收入已经很高的人,可能因减少工作时间而对减税作出反应。 当然,减税可能是一种好或坏的主意,原因很多,不仅因为减税对工作奖励措施有影响,而且还因为减税将使人们增加工作时间这一具体说法可能只是特定工人群体才可能坚持,而且取决于如何和谁减税。When making a choice along the labor-leisure budget constraint, a household will choose the combination of labor, leisure, and income that provides the most utility. The result of a change in wage levels can be higher work hours, the same work hours, or lower work hours.
::在按照劳动弹性预算限制做出选择时,家庭将选择劳动、闲暇和收入的组合,这能提供最大的效益。 工资水平变化的结果可以是工作时间更高、工作时间相同或工作时间更低。Making Choices
::作出选择In what category did consumers worldwide increase their spending during the recession? Higher education. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), enrollment in colleges and universities rose one-third in China and almost two-thirds in Saudi Arabia, nearly doubled in Pakistan, tripled in Uganda, and surged by three million—18 percent—in the United States. Why were consumers willing to spend on education during lean times? Both individuals and countries view higher education as the way to prosperity. Many feel that increased earnings are a significant benefit of attending college.
::高等教育:根据联合国教育、科学及文化组织(教科文组织)的资料,中国大专院校的入学率上升了三分之一,沙特阿拉伯上升了近三分之二,巴基斯坦几乎翻了一番,乌干达增加了两倍,美国上升了300万至18%。为什么消费者愿意在贫困时期花在教育上?个人和国家都认为高等教育是繁荣之路。许多人认为增加收入是上大学的一大好处。Bureau of Labor Statistics data from May 2012 supports this view, as shown in 3. They show a positive correlation between earnings and education. The data also indicate that unemployment rates fall with higher levels of education and training.
::劳动统计局2012年5月的数据证实了这一观点,如第3段所示,这些数据表明收入和教育之间的正相关关系,数据还表明失业率随着教育和培训水平的提高而下降。-
The Impact of Education on Earnings and Unemployment Rates, 2012
Those with the highest degrees in 2012 had substantially lower unemployment rates whereas those with the least formal education suffered from the highest unemployment rates. The national median average weekly income was $815, and the nation unemployment average in 2012 was 6.8%. (Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, May 22, 2013)
::2012年获得最高学位者的失业率大幅下降,而接受正规教育最少者的失业率最高,全国平均每周平均收入中位数为815美元,2012年全国平均失业率为6.8%(资料来源:劳动统计局,2013年5月22日)。For additional information on current trends in the labor market click on the following link:
::有关劳动力市场当前趋势的更多信息,请点击以下链接:The Decline in U.S. Union Membership
::美国联盟成员资格的下降The proportion of U.S. workers belonging to unions has declined dramatically since the early 1950s. Economists have offered a number of possible explanations:
::自1950年代初以来,美国工会工人的比例急剧下降。-
The shift from manufacturing to service industries
::从制造业转向服务业 -
The force of globalization and increased competition from foreign producers
::全球化的力量和外国生产者的竞争加剧 -
A reduced desire for unions because of the workplace protection laws now in place
::由于现行的工作场所保护法,对工会的渴望减少 -
U.S. legal environment that makes it relatively more difficult for unions to organize workers and expand their membership
::美国的法律环境使工会组织工人和增加其成员数目相对困难
Let’s discuss each of these four explanations in more detail.
::让我们更详细地讨论这四个解释。A first possible explanation for the decline in the share of U.S. workers belonging to unions involves the patterns of job growth in the manufacturing and service sectors of the economy shown in 4. The U.S. economy had about 15 million manufacturing jobs in 1960. This total rose to 19 million by the late 1970s and then declined to 17 million in 2013. Meanwhile, the number of jobs in service industries and in government combined rose from 35 million in 1960 to over 118 million by 2013, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Because over time unions were stronger in manufacturing than in service industries, the growth in jobs was not happening where the unions were. It is interesting to note that several of the biggest unions in the country are made up of government workers, including the American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME); the Service Employees International Union; and the National Education Association. The membership of each of these unions is listed in 3. Outside of government employees, however, unions have not had great success in organizing the service sector.
::4. 1960年,美国经济有大约1 500万个制造业工作岗位,到1970年代后期增加到1 900万,2013年又下降到1 700万。与此同时,根据劳工统计局,服务业和政府就业总数从1960年的3 500万增加到2013年的1.18亿以上。由于长期以来制造业工会比服务业工会更强大,就业增长没有在工会所在的地方发生。值得注意的是,美国一些最大的工会由政府工人组成,包括美国国家、州和市政雇员联合会(美联储)、国际服务雇员联合会以及全国教育协会。这些工会的每个成员都列在3个名单中。但是,政府雇员之外,工会在组织服务部门方面没有取得很大成功。- The Growth of Service Jobs
According to the U.S. Department of Labor's Bureau of Labor Statistics, j obs in services have increased dramatically in the last few decades. Jobs in government have increased modestly. Jobs in manufacturing have not changed much, although they have trended down in recent years.
::根据美国劳工部劳工统计局的统计,在过去几十年中,服务业的就业人数急剧增加。 政府就业人数略有增加。 制造业就业没有多大变化,尽管近年来呈下降趋势。A second explanation for the decline in the share of unionized workers looks at import competition. Starting in the 1960s, U.S. carmakers and steelmakers faced increasing competition from Japanese and European manufacturers. As sales of imported cars and steel rose, the number of jobs in U.S. auto manufacturing fell. This industry is heavily unionized. Not surprisingly, membership in the United Auto Workers, which was 975,000 in 1985, had fallen to roughly 390,000 by 2013. Import competition not only decreases the employment in sectors where unions were once strong, but also decreases the bargaining power of unions in those sectors. However, as we have seen, unions that organize public-sector workers, who are not threatened by import competition, have continued to see growth.
::对工会工人比例下降的第二个解释是进口竞争。 从1960年代开始,美国汽车制造商和钢铁制造商面临日本和欧洲制造商日益激烈的竞争。 随着进口汽车和钢铁制造业的销售量上升,美国汽车制造业的就业数量下降。 这一行业的工会化程度很高。 不足为奇的是,联合汽车工人(1985年为975,000人)的会员人数到2013年已经下降到大约390,000人。 进口竞争不仅减少了工会一度强大的部门的就业,而且降低了工会在这些部门的讨价还价能力。 然而,正如我们所看到的那样,组织公共部门工人的工会并没有受到进口竞争的威胁,它们继续增长。A third possible reason for the decline in the number of union workers is that citizens often call on their elected representatives to pass laws concerning work conditions, overtime, parental leave, regulation of pensions, and other issues. Unions offered strong political support for these laws aimed at protecting workers but, in an ironic twist, the passage of those laws then made many workers feel less need for unions.
::工会工人人数下降的第三个可能原因是,公民经常要求其当选代表通过有关工作条件、加班、育儿假、养老金管理和其他问题的法律。 工会对旨在保护工人的这些法律提供了强有力的政治支持,但具有讽刺意味的是,这些法律的通过使许多工人感到对工会的需求减少。These first three possible reasons for the decline of unions are all somewhat plausible, but they have a common problem. Most other developed economies have experienced similar economic and political trends, such as the shift from manufacturing to services, globalization, and increasing government social benefits and regulation of the workplace. Clearly there are cultural differences between countries as to their acceptance of unions in the workplace. The share of the population belonging to unions in other countries is very high compared with the share in the United States. 3 shows the proportion of workers in a number of the world’s high-income economies who belong to unions. The United States is near the bottom, along with France and Spain. The last column shows union coverage, defined as including those workers whose wages are determined by a union negotiation even if the workers do not officially belong to the union. In the United States, union membership is almost identical to union coverage. However, in many countries, the wages of many workers who do not officially belong to a union are still determined by collective bargaining between unions and firms.
::工会下降的前三个可能原因都有些似是而非,但它们都有一个共同的问题。 其他大多数发达经济体都经历了类似的经济和政治趋势,如从制造业转向服务业、全球化、政府社会福利和工作场所监管的提高。 显然,各国在接受工作场所工会方面存在文化差异。与其他国家的工会人口比例相比,其他国家属于工会的人口比例与美国的比例非常高。 3 表明世界一些高收入经济体中属于工会的工人比例。美国与法国和西班牙相近于底部。最后一栏显示工会的覆盖面,其定义是包括那些工资由工会谈判决定的工人,即使工人不是正式加入工会。在美国,工会会员几乎与工会的覆盖面相同。 但是,在许多国家,许多不属于正式加入工会的工人的工资仍然由工会和公司之间的集体谈判决定。Country
::国家Union Density: Percentage of Workers Belonging to a Union
::工会密度:属于工会的工人百分比Union Coverage: Percentage of Workers Whose Wages Are Determined by Union Bargaining
::工会覆盖面:由工会谈判确定工资的工人百分比Austria
::奥地利 奥地利37%
99%
France
::法国 法国 法国 法国 法国 法国9%
95%
Germany
::德国 德国26%
63%
Japan
::日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本 日本22%
23%
Netherlands
::荷兰 荷兰 荷兰25%
82%
Spain
::西班牙 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙 西班牙11.3%
81%
Sweden
::瑞典 瑞典 瑞典 瑞典82%
92%
United Kingdom
::联合王国 联合王国 联合王国 联合王国 联合王国29%
35%
United States
::美国 美国 美国 美国11.3%
12.5%
International Comparisons of Union Membership and Coverage in 2012(Source, CIA World Factbook, retrieved from
These international differences in union membership suggest a fourth reason for the decline of union membership in the United States: perhaps U.S. laws are less friendly to the formation of unions than such laws in other countries. The close connection between union membership and a friendly legal environment is apparent in the history of U.S. unions. The great rise in union membership in the 1930s followed the passage of the National Labor-Management Relations Act of 1935, which specified that workers had a right to organize unions and that management had to give them a fair chance to do so. The U.S. government strongly encouraged the formation of unions during the early 1940s in the belief that unions would help to coordinate the all-out production efforts needed during World War II. However, after World War II came the passage of the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947, which gave states the power to allow workers to opt out of the union in their workplace if they so desired. This law made the legal climate less encouraging to those seeking to form unions, and union membership levels soon started declining.
::这些国际工会会员构成差异表明美国工会会员构成下降的第四个原因:也许美国法律对成立工会比其他国家的法律对成立工会不那么友好;工会会员与友好法律环境之间的密切关系在美国工会的历史中显而易见;1930年代工会会员构成的大幅度增加是1935年《国家劳动管理关系法》通过之后发生的,该法明确规定工人有权组织工会,管理层必须给予他们公平的机会。 美国政府强烈鼓励1940年代初成立工会,认为工会有助于协调第二次世界大战期间所需的全面生产努力。 然而,第二次世界大战后通过了1947年《塔夫特-哈特利法》,其中规定如果工人愿意,有权允许他们选择在工作场所退出工会。 这项法律使法律环境对寻求成立工会的人来说不那么令人鼓舞,工会会员数量也很快开始下降。The procedures for forming a union differ substantially from country to country. For example, the procedures in the United States and those in Canada are strikingly different. When a group of workers wish to form a union in the United States, they announce this fact and an election date is set when the employees at a firm will vote in a secret ballot on whether to form a union. Supporters of the union lobby for a “yes” vote, and the management of the firm lobbies for a “no” vote—often even hiring outside consultants for assistance in swaying workers to vote “no.” In Canada, by contrast, a union is formed when a sufficient proportion of workers (usually about 60%) sign an official card saying that they want a union. There is no separate “election date.” The management of Canadian firms is limited by law in its ability to lobby against the union. In addition, though it is illegal to discriminate and fire workers based on their union activity in the United States, the penalties are slight, making this a not so costly way of deterring union activity. In short, forming unions is easier in Canada—and in many other countries—than in the United States.
::成立工会的程序因国而异,例如,美国和加拿大的程序大相径庭。当一组工人希望在美国成立工会时,他们宣布这一事实,当公司雇员对是否成立工会进行无记名投票投票时,选举日期就确定下来。工会游说团的支持者支持“赞成”投票,以及公司游说团的“反对”投票管理——甚至经常雇用外部顾问协助推动工人投票“反对”。相比之下,在加拿大,当有足够比例的工人(通常为60%)签署正式卡片表示他们希望成立工会时,工会就成立。没有单独的“选举日期”。加拿大公司的管理受到法律的限制,因为其游说反对工会的能力受到限制。此外,尽管基于在美国的工会活动歧视工人和解雇工人是非法的,但惩罚是轻微的,因此不是阻止工会活动的代价那么昂贵。简而言之,在加拿大和许多其他国家,工会的组建比美国更容易。In summary, union membership in the United States is lower than in many other high-income countries, a difference that may be due to different legal environments and cultural attitudes toward unions.
::简言之,美国的工会会员人数低于许多其他高收入国家,这一差异可能是由于不同的法律环境以及对工会的文化态度造成的。Employment Discrimination
::就业歧视Discrimination involves acting on the belief that members of a certain group are inferior solely because of a factor such as race, gender, or religion. There are many types of discrimination but the focus here will be on discrimination in labor markets, which arises if workers with the same skill levels—as measured by education, experience, and expertise—receive different pay or have different job opportunities because of their race or gender.
::歧视是指认为某一群体的成员仅仅因为种族、性别或宗教等因素而处于劣等地位,因此采取歧视行动;存在多种形式的歧视,但这里的重点是劳动力市场上的歧视,如果技能水平相同的工人——以教育、经验和专门知识来衡量——获得不同的工资,或因其种族或性别而有不同的工作机会,就会产生这种歧视。Earnings Gaps by Race and Gender
::按种族和性别分列的收入差距A possible signal of labor market discrimination is when one group is paid less than another. 5 shows the average wage of black workers as a ratio of the average wage of white workers and the average wage of female workers as a ratio of the average wage of male workers. Research by the economists Francine Blau and Laurence Kahn shows that the gap between the earnings of women and men did not move much in the 1970s, but has declined since the 1980s. According to the U.S. Census, the gap between the earnings of blacks and whites diminished in the 1970s, but has not changed in 50 years. In both gender and race, an earnings gap remains.
::劳动力市场歧视的一个可能信号是当一个群体的工资低于另一个群体时。 5 5 显示黑人工人的平均工资与白人工人平均工资之比和女工平均工资与男性工人平均工资之比。经济学家弗朗辛·布劳和劳伦斯·卡恩的研究显示,1970年代男女收入的差距没有多大变化,但自1980年代以来有所下降。 根据美国人口普查,1970年代黑人和白人收入之差缩小了70年代,但50年来没有变化。 在性别和种族方面,收入差距依然存在。-
Wage Ratios by Sex and Race
The U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics cites that t he ratio of wages for black workers to white workers rose substantially in the late 1960s and through the 1970s, but has not changed much since then. The ratio of wages for female to male workers changed little through the 1970s, but has risen substantially since the 1980s. In both cases, a gap remains between the average wages of black and white workers and between the average wages of female and male workers.
::美国劳工部、劳动统计局指出,黑人工人与白人工人的工资比率在1960年代末和1970年代大幅上升,但自那时以来没有发生多大变化。 1970年代,女性与男性工人的工资比率变化不大,但自1980年代以来大幅上升。 在这两种情况下,黑人和白人工人的平均工资与男女工人的平均工资之间的差距依然存在。An earnings gap between average wages, in and of itself, does not prove that discrimination is occurring in the labor market. We need to apply the same productivity characteristics to all parties (employees) involved. Gender discrimination in the labor market occurs when women are paid less than men despite having comparable levels of education, experience, and expertise. (Read the Clear It Up about the sex-discrimination suit brought against Wal-Mart.) Similarly, racial discrimination in the labor market exists when racially diverse employees are paid less than their coworkers of the majority race despite having comparable levels of education, experience, and expertise. To bring a successful gender discrimination lawsuit, a female employee must prove that she is paid less than a male employee who holds a similar job, with similar educational attainment, and with similar expertise. Likewise, someone who wants to sue on the grounds of racial discrimination must prove that he or she is paid less than an employee of another race who holds a similar job, with similar educational attainment, and with similar expertise.
::平均工资之间的收入差距本身并不能证明劳动力市场中存在歧视。我们需要对所涉各方(雇员)适用同样的生产力特点。劳动力市场中的性别歧视发生在妇女尽管具有同等的教育、经验和专门知识水平,但报酬低于男子的情况下。(关于对Wal-Mart提起的性别歧视诉讼的《Clear It Up》。 )同样,劳动力市场中的种族歧视也存在于种族多样化的雇员尽管具有同等的教育、经验和专门知识水平,但工资低于多数种族同事的情况下。要成功起诉性别歧视,女性雇员必须证明她的工资低于从事类似工作、具有类似教育程度和类似专长的男性雇员。同样,以种族歧视为由提起诉讼的人必须证明,他或她的工资低于从事类似工作、具有类似教育程度和类似专长的另一种种族的雇员。Clear It Up: What was the sex-discrimination case against Wal-Mart?
::清清楚楚:沃尔玛的性别歧视案件是什么?In one of the largest class-action sex-discrimination cases in U.S. history, 1.2 million female employees of Wal-Mart claimed that the company engaged in wage and promotion discrimination. In 2011, the Supreme Court threw out the case on the grounds that the group was too large and too diverse for the case to be considered a class action suit. Lawyers for the women regrouped and are now suing in smaller groups. Part of the difficulty for the female employees is that the court said that pay and promotion decisions were made by local managers and were not necessarily policies of the company as a whole. Consequently, female Wal-Mart employees in Texas are arguing that their new suit will challenge the management of a “discrete group of regional district and store managers.” They claim these managers made biased pay and promotion decisions. However, in 2013, a smaller California class action suit against the company was again rejected by a federal district court.
::在美国历史上最大的集体诉讼性别歧视案件中,Wal-Mart公司120万女雇员声称该公司从事工资和晋升歧视;2011年,最高法院以该团体规模太大,过于多样化,无法被视为集体诉讼案件为由,撤销了该案;女律师重新组合,现在以较小的集团起诉;女性雇员的困难部分在于法院说,薪酬和晋升决定是由当地管理人员作出的,不一定是整个公司的政策;因此,德克萨斯州Wal-Mart公司女雇员认为,他们的新诉讼将质疑“区域区和商店经理分散集团”的管理。 他们声称,这些经理作出了有偏见的薪酬和晋升决定;然而,2013年,一家联邦地区法院再次驳回了对该公司的加利福尼亚州较小规模的集团诉讼。On other issues, Wal-Mart made the news again in 2013 when the National Labor Relations Board found Wal-Mart guilty of illegally penalizing and firing workers who took part in labor protests and strikes. Wal-Mart has already paid $11.7 million in back wages and compensatory damages to women in Kentucky who were denied jobs due to their sex.
::在其他问题上,沃尔玛在2013年再次发布新闻,当时国家劳动关系委员会裁定沃尔玛非法惩罚和解雇参加劳动抗议和罢工的工人。 沃尔玛已经向肯塔基州因性别原因被拒绝工作的妇女支付了1 170万美元的工资和补偿性损失。To read more about Wal-Mart's continuing struggle with labor practices, follow this link: .
::更多关于沃尔玛与劳动实践持续斗争的更多信息,Investigating the Female/Male Earnings Gap
::调查女性/男性收入差距As a result of changes in law and culture, women began to enter the paid workforce in substantial numbers in the mid- to late-twentieth century. By 2013, 58.6% of adult women held jobs while 71.2% of adult men did. Moreover, along with entering the workforce, women began to ratchet up their education levels. In 1971, 44% of undergraduate college degrees went to women; by 2013, women received 56% of bachelor’s degrees. In 1970, women received 5.4% of the degrees from law schools and 8.4% of the degrees from medical schools. By 2013, women were receiving 47.2% of the law degrees and 48.3% of the medical degrees. These gains in education and experience have reduced the female/male wage gap over time. However, concerns remain about the extent to which women have not yet assumed a substantial share of the positions at the top of the largest companies or in the U.S. Congress.
::由于法律和文化的改变,妇女开始在二十世纪中叶到后期大量进入有偿劳动力队伍;到2013年,58.6%的成年妇女从事工作,71.2%的成年男子从事工作;此外,随着进入劳动力队伍,妇女开始提高教育水平;1971年,44%的大学本科学位授予妇女;到2013年,妇女获得了56 %的学士学位;1970年,妇女从法学院获得5.4%的学位,从医学院获得8.4%的学位;到2013年,妇女获得47.2%的法律学位和48.3%的医疗学位;这些教育和经验的提高随着时间的推移缩小了男女工资差距;然而,妇女尚未在最大公司或美国国会担任重要职位的程度仍然令人关切。There are factors that can lower women’s average wages. Women are likely to bear a disproportionately large share of household responsibilities. A mother of young children is more likely to drop out of the labor force for several years or work on a reduced schedule than is the father. As a result, women in their 30s and 40s are likely, on average, to have less job experience than men. In the United States, childless women with the same education and experience levels as men are typically paid comparably. However, women with families and children are typically paid about 7% to 14% less than other women of similar education and work experience. Meanwhile, married men earn about 10% to 15% more than single men with comparable education and work experience.
::有一些因素可以降低妇女的平均工资。 妇女可能承担过多的家务责任。 幼儿的母亲比父亲更有可能退出劳动力队伍几年,或者工作时间缩短。 结果,30到40岁的妇女的平均工作经验可能比男子少。 在美国,教育和经验水平与男子相当的无子女妇女一般工资相当。 但是,有家庭和子女的妇女通常比有类似教育和工作经验的其他妇女低7%到14 % 。 与此同时,已婚男子的收入比有类似教育和工作经验的单身男子高出10%到15%左右。The different patterns of family responsibilities possibly could be called discrimination, but it is primarily rooted in America’s social patterns of discrimination, which involve the roles that fathers and mothers play in child-rearing, rather than discrimination by employers in hiring and salary decisions.
::不同的家庭责任模式可能被称为歧视,但主要根源在于美国的社会歧视模式,即父亲和母亲在抚养子女方面扮演的角色,而不是雇主在雇用和工资决定方面的歧视。Visit this website to read more about the persistently low numbers of women in executive roles in business and in the U.S. Congress: .
::访问这个网站是为了更多了解在商业和美国国会担任行政职务的妇女人数持续偏低的情况:Investigating the Black/White Earnings Gap
::调查黑白收入差距Blacks experienced blatant labor market discrimination during much of the twentieth century. Until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, it was legal in many states to refuse to hire a black worker, regardless of the credentials or experience of that worker. Moreover, blacks were often denied access to educational opportunities, which in turn meant that they had lower levels of qualifications for many jobs. At least one economic study has shown that the 1964 law is partially responsible for the narrowing of the gap in black–white earnings in the late 1960s and into the 1970s; for example, the ratio of total earnings of black male workers to white male workers rose from 62% in 1964 to 75.3% in 2013, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
::20世纪大部分时间,黑人在劳动力市场上受到公然歧视。 在1964年《民权法案》通过之前,许多州都合法拒绝雇用黑人工人,不管该工人的资格和经验如何。 此外,黑人常常被剥夺教育机会,这反过来意味着他们有许多工作的资格水平较低。 至少一项经济研究表明,1964年的法律部分地导致了1960年代末和1970年代黑白收入差距的缩小;例如,根据劳动统计局的数据,黑人男性工人与白人男性工人的总收入比例从1964年的62%上升到2013年的75.3%。However, the earnings gap between black and white workers has not changed as much as the earnings gap between men and women has in the last half century. The remaining racial gap seems related both to continuing differences in education levels and to the presence of discrimination. 4 shows that the percentage of blacks who complete a four-year college degree remains substantially lower than the percentage of whites who complete college. According to the U.S. Census, both whites and blacks have higher levels of educational attainment than Hispanics and lower levels than Asians. The lower average levels of education for black workers surely explain part of the earnings gap. In fact, black women who have the same levels of education and experience as white women receive, on average, about the same level of pay. One study shows that white and black college graduates have identical salaries immediately after college; however, the racial wage gap widens over time, an outcome that suggests the possibility of continuing discrimination. Another study conducted a field experiment by responding to job advertisements with fictitious resumes with either very African American sounding names or very white sounding names and found out that white names received 50 percent more callbacks for interviews. This is suggestive of discrimination in job opportunities. Further, as the following Clear It Up feature explains, there is evidence to support that discrimination in the housing market is connected to employment discrimination.
::然而,黑人和白人工人之间的收入差距没有像过去半个世纪男女收入差距那样大的变化,其余的种族差距似乎与教育水平和经历与白人妇女平均工资水平相同有关。 4 表明完成四年大学学位的黑人百分比仍然大大低于完成大学学业的白人百分比。根据美国人口普查,白人和黑人的受教育程度均高于西班牙裔,低于亚洲人。黑人工人的平均教育水平较低,这肯定解释了收入差距的部分原因。事实上,与白人妇女相同教育水平和经验的黑人妇女平均得到同样的工资水平。一项研究表明,白人和黑人大学毕业生在大学毕业后立即获得相同的工资;然而,种族工资差距随着时间的推移不断扩大,这表明歧视可能继续存在。另一项研究进行了实地试验,对以非常非裔美国人发声的名字或非常白人发声的名字恢复工作广告进行回复,并发现白名在面试时得到的回调率增加了50%。一项研究表明,白名与白人毕业生在大学毕业后的工资水平相同;这项研究表明,白人和黑人大学毕业生在大学毕业后的工资水平相同;但是,种族工资差距随着时间的扩大,表明歧视有可能继续存在。White
::白白Hispanic
::西班牙语Black
::黑黑色Asian
::亚 亚 亚 亚Completed four years of high school or more
::完成四年或四年以上高中教育87.6%
62.9%
84.2%
88.9%
Completed four years of college or more
::大学四年或四年以上30.3%
13.9%
19.8%
52.4%
Educational Attainment by Race and Ethnicity in 2011(Source: )
::2011年按种族和族裔分列的教育情况(资料来源: )How is discrimination in the housing market connected to employment discrimination?
::住房市场中的歧视如何与就业歧视相联系?In a recent study by the Housing and Urban Development (HUD) department, black homebuyers who ask to look at homes for sale are shown 18 percent fewer homes compared to white homebuyers. Asians are shown 19 percent fewer properties. Additionally, Hispanics experience more discrimination in renting apartments and undergo stiffer credit checks than white renters. In a 2012 study conducted by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development and the nonprofit Urban Institute, Hispanic testers who contacted agents about advertised rental units were given information about 12 percent fewer units available and were shown seven percent fewer units than white renters. The $9 million study, based on research in 28 metropolitan areas, concluded that blatant “door slamming” forms of discrimination are on the decline but that the discrimination that does exist is harder to detect, and as a result, more difficult to remedy. According to the Chicago Tribune , HUD Secretary Shaun Donovan told reporters, “Just because it’s taken on a hidden form doesn’t make it any less harmful. You might not be able to move into that community with the good schools.”
::在最近由住房和城市发展部(HUD)进行的一项研究中,要求看房子出售的黑购房者比白购房者少18%。 亚洲人少19%。 此外,西班牙人在租房方面比白人租房者更受歧视,并接受更严厉的信用检查。 2012年,美国住房和城市发展部(HUD)和非营利城市研究所(Enterproducal United Nations Institute)进行的一项研究中,与广告出租单位接触的西班牙人获得的信息比白人租房者少12%左右,比白人租房者少7%。 根据在28个大都市地区进行的研究,900万美元的研究得出结论,公然的“扇门”歧视形式是下降的,但确实存在的歧视更难于察觉,因此更难于纠正。 据芝加哥的Tribune,HUD秘书Shaun Donovann告诉记者,“仅仅因为以隐形形式拍摄的并不减少伤害。 你可能无法与优秀的学校一起进入该社区。 ”The lower levels of education for black workers can also be a result of discrimination—although it may be pre-labor market discrimination, rather than direct discrimination by employers in the labor market. For example, if discrimination in housing markets causes black families to live clustered together in certain poorer neighborhoods, then the black children will continue to have lower educational attainment then their white counterparts and, consequently, not be able to obtain the higher paying jobs that require higher levels of education. Another element to consider is that in the past, when blacks were effectively barred from many high-paying jobs, getting the additional education could have seemed somewhat pointless because the educational degrees would not pay off. Even though labor market discrimination has been legally abolished, it can take some time to establish a culture and a tradition of valuing education highly. Additionally, a legacy of past discrimination may contribute to an attitude that blacks will have a difficult time succeeding in academic subjects. In any case, the impact of social discrimination in labor markets is more complicated than seeking to punish a few bigoted employers.
::黑人工人受教育水平较低也可能是歧视的结果——尽管这可能是劳动前市场歧视,而不是劳动力市场雇主的直接歧视,例如,如果住房市场的歧视导致黑人家庭聚居在某些较贫穷的街区,那么黑人儿童的教育程度将继续较低,然后是白人儿童,因此,他们无法获得需要更高程度教育的高报酬工作。另一个需要考虑的因素是,过去,当黑人被有效地禁止从事许多高薪工作时,获得额外教育似乎有点毫无意义,因为教育程度不会得到补偿。尽管劳动力市场的歧视已经在法律上废除,但建立高度重视教育的文化和传统需要一些时间。此外,过去的歧视遗留下来可能会助长黑人在学术科目上难以成功的态度。无论如何,劳动力市场的社会歧视的影响要比试图惩罚少数偏执的雇主更为复杂。Competitive Markets and Discrimination
::竞争性市场和歧视Gary Becker (b. 1930), who won the Nobel Prize in economics in 1992, was one of the first to analyze discrimination in economic terms. Becker pointed out that while competitive markets can allow some employers to practice discrimination, it can also provide profit-seeking firms with incentives not to discriminate. Given these incentives, Becker explored the question of why discrimination persists.
::1992年获得诺贝尔经济学奖的Gary Becker(b. 1930年b.)在1992年获得诺贝尔经济学奖的Gary Becker(b. 1930年b. 1930年)是第一个分析经济歧视的国家之一,Becker指出,虽然竞争性市场可以允许一些雇主实行歧视,但它也可以向追求利润的企业提供不歧视的激励。 鉴于这些激励,Becker探讨了为什么歧视持续存在的问题。If a business is located in an area with a large minority population and refuses to sell to minorities, it will cut into its own profits. If some businesses run by bigoted employers refuse to pay women and/or minorities a wage based on their productivity, then other profit-seeking employers can hire these workers. In a competitive market, if the owners of a business care more about the color of money than about the color of skin, they will have an incentive to make buying, selling, hiring, and promotion decisions strictly based on economic factors.
::如果企业位于一个人口众多的少数民族地区,拒绝向少数民族出售,则会削减自己的利润;如果由偏执的雇主经营的一些企业拒绝根据其生产力向妇女和(或)少数民族支付工资,那么其他追求利润的雇主可以雇用这些工人;在竞争激烈的市场中,如果企业的业主更关心金钱的颜色而不是肤色,他们就会有动力作出严格基于经济因素的买卖、雇用和晋升决定。The power of markets to offer at least a degree of freedom to oppressed groups should not be underestimated. In many countries, cohesive minority groups like Jews and emigrant Chinese have managed to carve out space for themselves through their economic activities despite legal and social discrimination against them. Many immigrants, including those who come to the United States, have taken advantage of economic freedom to make new lives for themselves. However, history teaches that market forces alone are unlikely to eliminate discrimination. After all, discrimination against African Americans persisted in the market-oriented U.S. economy during the century between President Abraham Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, which freed the slaves in 1863, and the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964—and has continued since then.
::市场至少为被压迫群体提供某种程度的自由的力量不应低估。 在许多国家,犹太人和移民中国人等有凝聚力的少数群体尽管受到法律和社会歧视,却设法通过经济活动为自己创造空间。 许多移民,包括来到美国的人,利用经济自由为自己创造新的生活。 然而,历史告诉我们市场力量本身不可能消除歧视。 毕竟,在本世纪,美国面向市场的经济中,对非裔美国人的歧视一直持续发生,这与亚伯拉罕·林肯总统的解放宣言(1863年释放奴隶)和1964年《民权法》的通过(自那以后一直持续着)之间。So why does discrimination persist in competitive markets? Gary Becker sought to explain this persistence. Discriminatory impulses can emerge at a number of levels: among managers, among workers, and among customers. Consider the situation of a manager who is not personally prejudiced, but who has many workers or customers who are prejudiced. If that manager treats minority groups or women fairly, the manager may find it hurts the morale of prejudiced co-workers or drives away prejudiced customers. In such a situation, a policy of non-discrimination could reduce the firm’s profits. After all, a business firm is part of society, and a firm that does not follow the societal norms is likely to suffer. Market forces alone are unlikely to overwhelm strong social attitudes about discrimination.
::那么为什么歧视在竞争性市场中持续存在呢? Gary Becker试图解释这种顽固性。 歧视性的冲动可能在多个层面上出现:管理者、工人和顾客之间。 想想一个没有个人偏见但有许多工人或顾客受到偏见的经理的情况。 如果管理者公平对待少数群体或妇女,那么管理者可能会发现它伤害了有偏见的同事的士气或驱赶有偏见的顾客。 在这种情况下,非歧视政策可能会降低企业的利润。 毕竟,企业企业是社会的一部分,不遵守社会规范的公司也可能会受到影响。 单是市场力量不可能压倒社会对歧视的强烈态度。Public Policies to Reduce Discrimination
::减少歧视的公共政策A first public policy step against discrimination in the labor market is to make it illegal. For example, the Equal Pay Act of 1963 said that men and women who do equal work at a company must be paid the same. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibits employment discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 prohibited discrimination on the basis of age against individuals who are 40 years of age or older. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 provides monetary damages in cases of intentional employment discrimination. The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 was aimed at prohibiting discrimination against women in the workplace who are planning to get pregnant, are pregnant, or are returning after pregnancy. Passing a law, however, is only part of the answer, since discrimination by prejudiced employers may be less important than broader social patterns.
::禁止劳动力市场歧视的第一个公共政策步骤是将其定为非法,例如,1963年的《同酬法》规定,在公司从事同等工作的男女必须获得同等报酬;1964年的《民权法》禁止基于种族、肤色、宗教、性别或民族出身的就业歧视;1967年的《就业年龄歧视法》禁止基于年龄对40岁或40岁以上个人的歧视;1991年的《民权法》规定了在蓄意就业歧视案件中的金钱赔偿;1978年的《怀孕歧视法》旨在禁止对计划怀孕、怀孕或怀孕后返回的工作场所妇女的歧视;然而,通过一项法律只是解决办法的一部分,因为受偏见的雇主的歧视可能不如更广泛的社会模式重要。These laws against discrimination have reduced the gender wage gap. A study by the Department of Labor in 2007 compared salaries of men and women who have a similar educational achievement, work experience, and occupation and found that the gender wage gap is only 5%.
::这些反歧视法律缩小了男女工资差距,劳动部2007年的一项研究比较了具有类似教育成就、工作经验和职业的男女工资,发现男女工资差距仅为5%。In the case of the earnings gap between blacks and whites (and also between Hispanics and whites), probably the single largest step that could be taken at this point in U.S. history to close the earnings gap would be to reduce the gap in educational achievement. Part of the answer to this issue involves finding ways to improve the performance of schools, which is a highly controversial topic in itself. In addition, the education gap is unlikely to close unless black and Hispanic families and peer groups strengthen their culture of support for educational achievement.
::在黑人和白人之间(以及西班牙裔和白人之间)收入差距的情况下,也许美国历史上为缩小收入差距可以采取的最大步骤是缩小教育成就差距,这个问题的答案之一是寻找改善学校业绩的方法,这本身就是一个极有争议的话题;此外,除非黑人和西班牙裔家庭和同龄群体加强支持教育成就的文化,否则教育差距不可能缩小。Affirmative action is the name given to active efforts by government or businesses that give special rights to minorities in hiring and promotion to make up for past discrimination. Affirmative action, in its limited and not especially controversial form, means making an effort to reach out to a broader range of minority candidates for jobs. In its more aggressive and controversial form, affirmative action required government and companies to hire a specific number or percentage of minority employees. However, the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled against state affirmative action laws. Today, affirmative action policies are applied only to federal contractors who have lost a discrimination lawsuit. This type of redress is enforced by the federal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC).
::平权行动是政府或企业在雇用和晋升方面给予少数群体特殊权利的积极努力的名称,以弥补过去的歧视; 平权行动,其形式有限,不具有特别争议性,意味着要努力接触更多的少数族裔求职者; 平权行动,其形式更具侵略性和争议性,要求政府和公司雇用特定数目或百分比的少数族裔雇员; 然而,美国最高法院裁定州平权行动法无效; 今天,平权行动政策只适用于已失去歧视诉讼的联邦承包商; 这种补救由联邦平等就业机会委员会(EEOC)执行。An Increasingly Diverse Workforce
::日益多样化的劳动力队伍Racial and ethnic diversity is on the rise in the U.S. population and work force. As 6 shows, while the white Americans composed 78% of the population in 2012, the U.S. Bureau of the Census projects that whites will be 69% of the U.S. population by 2060. The proportion of U.S. citizens who are of Hispanic background is predicted to rise substantially. Moreover, in addition to expected changes in the population, diversity is being increased in the workforce as the women who entered the workforce in the 1970s and 1980s are now moving up the promotion ladders within their organizations.
::种族和族裔多样性正在美国人口和劳动力中呈上升趋势。 如6个所示,2012年白种美国人占人口78%,而美国人口普查局预测到2060年白人将占美国人口的69%。 预计具有西班牙裔背景的美国公民的比例将大幅上升。 此外,除了预期的人口变化外,随着1970年代和1980年代加入劳动力队伍的妇女正在其组织内提升晋升阶梯,劳动力的多样性正在增加。- Projected Changes in America’s Racial and Ethnic Diversity
This figure shows projected changes in the ethnic makeup of the U.S. population by 2060. Note that “NHPI” stands for Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander. “AIAN” stands for American Indian and Alaska Native. Source: US Department of Commerce
::这一数字显示了到2060年美国人口种族构成的预测变化。请注意,“NHPI”代表夏威夷土著和其他太平洋岛民。“AIAN”代表美国印第安人和阿拉斯加土著人。资料来源:美国商务部。Fortune-telling is not economics, but it still can be clarifying to speculate about the future. Optimists argue that the growing proportions of minority workers will knock over remaining discriminatory barriers. The economy will benefit as an increasing proportion of workers from traditionally disadvantaged groups have a greater opportunity to fulfill their potential. Pessimists worry that the social tensions between men and women and between ethnic groups will rise and that workers will be less productive as a result. Anti-discrimination policy, at its best, seeks to help society move toward the more optimistic outcome.
::预测财富并不是经济学,但是对未来进行猜测还是可以澄清的。 乐观主义者认为,少数民族工人比例的上升将打破剩余的歧视性障碍。 经济将获益,因为来自传统弱势群体的越来越多的工人将有更多的机会发挥他们的潜力。 悲观主义者担心男女之间以及族裔群体之间的社会紧张关系会加剧,因此工人的生产力会下降。 反歧视政策充其量是为了帮助社会走向更乐观的结果。Visit this website to read more about wage discrimination: .
::访问这个网站以阅读更多有关工资歧视的更多信息: .Visit this website to obtain more context regarding immigration:
::访问这个网站是为了了解更多有关移民的背景:
::视频:劳动力市场和最低工资Answer the self check questions below to monitor your understanding of the concepts in this section.
::回答下面的自我核对问题,以监测你对本节概念的理解。
::自查问题
::1. 工会会员人数减少的一些原因是什么?
::2. 解释为什么在同一行业,妇女挣的钱比男子少,并给出3个低工资原因。
::3. 有关最低工资的辩论,请解释您的立场:您是反对提高最低工资的反对者,还是支持提高最低工资的反对者。
::4. 有关雇用非法劳工的争论正在发生,有些人认为雇用非法劳工、偷窃工资或支付低于最低工资工资是正常的;另一些人则认为,这不仅是非法的,而且不公平,在这个问题上采取立场,为你的回答辩护。 -
Issues surrounding employment, unions, pay, and discrimination change over time.
