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  • 知识的三个理论

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    Language Overview
    ::语言语言概览

    Before we look into the various theories about how we know what we know when we make propositional claims and how to determine if claims are true or not it would be helpful to make a number of important points or distinctions about language and how we use it.  Not all uses of language involve a claim that can be described as claims of knowledge.  There are a variety of forms of expressions or sentences in any language. Not all sentences are functioning for the speaker in the same way.
    ::在研究各种理论之前,我们先研究我们如何知道我们何时提出主张,如何确定主张是否属实,以及如何确定主张是否属实,在语言及其使用方式方面提出若干重要的要点或区别,并非语言的所有使用都涉及可称为知识主张的主张,在任何语言中都有各种各样的表达或判决形式,并非所有判决都以同样的方式对发言者起作用。

    Language Claims
    ::语言语言索赔

    Here are five of the different uses for language:
    ::以下是语言的五种不同用途:

    Expressive (this use includes sentences that are neither true nor false).  They express the feelings of the speaker/writer.
    ::表达(这种使用包括既不真实也不虚假的句子),表达发言者/作者的感情。

    • holy cow!  
      ::圣母牛!
    • ouch
      ::触摸( A)
    • hooray!
      ::万岁!

    Directive (thus use includes sentences that are neither true nor false).  This use offers instructions or requests information.
    ::指令(因此使用包括既不真实也不虚假的句子)提供指示或要求信息。

    • please close the door
      ::请关上门
    • what time is it?
      ::现在几点了?
    • how much does that cost?
      ::那要花多少钱?

    Performative   (thus use includes sentences that are neither true nor false ).  This use actually performs some operation.  It presents no information and makes no requests.
    ::性能(因此使用包括既不真实也不虚假的句子) 。 这种使用实际上执行某种操作, 它不提供信息, 也不提出要求 。

    • I  bid five dollars
      ::我出价五美元
    • I  promise that i will do that
      ::我保证我会做到的
    • I now pronounce you ...
      ::我现在宣布你...

    Evaluative (thus use includes sentences that are neither true nor false).  This use expresses how people think about some object, activity, person, condition, or situation.
    ::评估(因此使用包括既不真实也不虚假的句子)。这种使用表达了人们如何看待某些物体、活动、人、状况或情况。

    • T hat is a good car
      ::好车,好车,好车
    • S he is a good person
      ::她是个好人
    • Chocolate is the best flavor for ice cream.
      ::巧克力是冰淇淋最好的口味

    As the standard for making such evaluations is not such as to be derived from a source that is recognized as existing apart from humans and uninfluenced by culture there is no commonly agreed upon method for determining if such evaluations are true or not true. Sentences expressing evaluations are not taken as making claims about what is known so much as making claims about how the evaluator thinks.
    ::由于进行这种评价的标准不是来自一种被确认为除人类之外存在的来源,而且不受文化影响,因此没有共同商定的方法来确定这种评价是否属实。

    Cognitive (this use includes sentences that are either true or false, or potentially true or false).  It is the cognitive use of language that concerns us with the issue of knowledge.
    ::认知性(这种使用包括真实或虚假的句子,或者可能真实或虚假的句子)正是认知性使用语言使我们对知识问题感到关切。

    • There are three sides to a triangle. The sum of their angles is 180 degrees.
      ::三角形有三边,它们角度的总和是180度。
    • There is a computer in front of you right now.
      ::现在有一台电脑在你面前
    • 23 + 11= 34
    • A bachelor is an unmarried male.
      ::单身男子是未婚男子。
    • If a is more than b, and b is more than c, then a is more than c.
      ::如果 a 大于 b, b 大于 c, 那么 a 大于 c。
    • There are 1.8376 x 10 73rd grains of sand on planet earth.
      ::地球上有1.8376x1073颗沙粒

    This is the use involved with propositional knowledge. It is the cognitive use that makes claims that should be capable of being determined to be either true or false. Cognitive use of language expressing that which is claimed as knowledge exists in a variety of forms: logical, semantic, systemic, and empirical. We will examine them in a subsequent section. What they have in common is that claims are made that can be determined to be true or false in some manner or other.
    ::认知使用可以使主张被确定为真实或虚假。认知使用可以以多种形式表达所谓知识的语言存在:逻辑、语义、系统和经验。我们将在接下来的一节中研究这些语言。它们的共同点是提出可以以某种方式或其它方式被确定为真实或虚假的主张。

    Rationalism
    ::理性论

    Rationalism is a reliance on reason {lat. ratio } as the only reliable source of human knowledge. In the most general application, rationalism offers a naturalistic alternative to appeals to religious accounts of human nature and conduct. A psychological characterization of rationalism would describe it as an overly deductive way of thinking and to the molding of reality to fit one's theoretical understanding.  More specifically, rationalism is the epistemological theory that significant knowledge of the world can best be achieved by a priori means; it therefore stands in contrast to empiricism.
    ::理性是一种依赖理性作为人类知识唯一可靠来源的依托。 在最普遍的应用中,理性提供了一种自然主义的替代方法,以取代对关于人性和行为的宗教描述的吸引力。理性的心理特征将它描述为一种过分的推卸思维和塑造现实以适应理论理解的过度推卸方式。更具体地说,理性是一种认知论理论,即对世界的重大知识最好通过先验手段实现;因此它与共鸣主义形成鲜明对比。

    The first philosophers who are today referred to as having been rationalists include D escartes (1596-1650),  L eibniz (1646-1716), and S pinoza (1632-1677). These thinkers thought they were defending a form of rational thought in the form of a science, against the older school of thought known as scholasticism . The defense of science offered by D escartes included a form of dualism that carried over elements of tradition of the scholastic's in a form of thinking that is technical, deductive, and abstract . In S pinoza's Ethics , the method is again deductive and modeled on the geometric system of  E uclid's Elements . Rationalism is a method of thinking that is marked by a deductive and abstract way of reasoning.
    ::今天被称为理性主义者的第一位哲学家包括笛卡尔特(1596-1650 ) 、 莱布尼兹(1646-1716) 和 斯宾诺萨(1632-1677 ) 。 这些思想家认为,他们捍卫的是科学形式的理性思想,反对古老的学术思想学派。 笛卡尔提供的对科学的辩护包括一种二元主义形式,它以技术、推理和抽象的思想形式延续了该学校的传统要素。 在斯宾诺萨的伦理学中,这种方法再次以尤克利德元素的几何系统进行推算和建模。 理性主义是一种思维方法,其标志是抽象的推理。

    Baruch Spinoza
    ::巴鲁·斯宾诺萨

    In ordinary usage, Rationalism is a basic sense of respect for reason or refers to the idea that reason should play a large role in human life (in contrast, say, to mysticism).  So with rationalism it is possible to have knowledge without having sensory experiences.  There is knowledge of logic and its laws or rules that are based upon reasoning and not sensory experience. There is a knowledge that is innate or born inside of us, that is to say that there are forms of knowledge that exists within our minds from the time we are born.
    ::在普通习惯中,理性是尊重理性的一种基本感觉,或者是指理性应该在人类生活中起重要作用(比如说,神秘主义 ) 。 因此,在理性中,可以没有感官体验就掌握知识。 逻辑及其法律或规则的知识是以推理而不是感官体验为基础的。 有一种知识是天生的,或起源于我们体内,也就是说,从我们出生之时起,我们的思想中就存在某种形式的知识。

    For  D escartes knowledge involves certainty and certainty exists in the form of clear and distinct ideas, which are ideas that are indubitable (not capable of being doubted).  These would be innate ideas that all rational beings are born with such as; knowledge of self, God, and the world.  But all knowledge is the result of acts of reasoning.
    ::对于笛卡尔来说,知识涉及确定性,确定性以明确和不同的想法的形式存在,这些想法是不可动摇的(不能被怀疑的),这些想法是所有理性人生来都是以诸如自我、真主和世界的知识为本的,但一切知识都是理性行为的产物。

    Rene Descartes
    ::Rene 笛卡尔

    Leibniz distinguished the truths of reasoning which were necessary truths as in the rule of contradictions, and excluded middle (statements are either true or false) from the truths of fact which are not necessary but are contingent upon experience and sufficient reason needed to accept what the senses report. The work of Leibniz anticipated modern logic and analytic philosophy, but his philosophy also looks back to the scholastic tradition, in which conclusions are produced by applying reason to first principles or prior definitions rather than to empirical evidence.
    ::莱布尼兹(Leibniz)将推理的真相区分开来,这些推理和自相矛盾的规则一样,都是必要的真理,从事实真相中排除中间(声明是真实的还是虚假的),这些事实真相虽然没有必要,但取决于经验和充分的理由来接受感知报告的内容。 莱布尼兹(Leibniz)的工作预想了现代逻辑和分析哲学,但他的哲学也回溯到学术传统,在这种传统中,通过对最初的原则或先前的定义而不是经验证据应用理由来得出结论。

    Empiricism
    ::经验经验主义

    Reliance on experience as the source of ideas and knowledge. More specifically, empiricism is the epistemological theory that genuine information about the world must be acquired by a  priori  means, so that nothing can be thought without first being sensed. Prominent modern empiricists include B acon, Locke, B erkeley, H ume, and  M ill. In the twentieth century, empiricism principles were extended and applied by the pragmatists and the logical positivists .
    ::依赖经验作为思想和知识的来源。 更具体地说,经验主义是一种认知论理论,即必须先入为主地获得关于世界的真实信息,这样不首先被感知就无法思考任何东西。 著名的现代经验学家包括培根、洛克、伯克利、休姆和米尔。 在二十世纪,经验主义原则被实用论者和逻辑论实证主义者扩展和运用。

    Empiricism is a theory that states that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It is one of several views of epistemology, the study of human knowledge, along with rationalism and skepticism. Empiricism emphasizes the role of empirical evidence in the formation of ideas, over the idea of innate ideas or traditional empiricists may argue however that traditions (or customs) arise due to relations of previous sense experiences.
    ::经验主义是一种理论,它指出知识只来自感官经验或主要来自感官经验。 它是关于认知论、人类知识研究以及理性主义和怀疑主义的几种观点之一。 经验主义强调经验证据在形成思想中的作用,而忽视了先天思想或传统经验主义者的想法,但传统(或习俗)可能认为,传统(或习俗)产生于先前感官经验的关系。

    Empiricism in the philosophy of science emphasizes evidence, especially as discovered in experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world rather than resting solely on  a priori  reasoning, intuition, or revelation.
    ::科学哲学的经验主义强调证据,特别是在实验中发现的证据。 科学方法的一个基本部分是,所有假设和理论都必须根据对自然世界的观察进行测试,而不是仅仅依靠先验推理、直觉或启示。

    Empiricism, often used by natural scientists, says that "knowledge is based on experience" and that "knowledge is tentative and probabilistic , subject to continued revision and falsification .
    ::自然科学家经常使用的经验主义说,“知识基于经验”,“知识是试探性的,概率性,可以不断修改和伪造。

    Empiricists
    ::经验学者

    John Locke 
    ::约翰洛克

    For Locke the mind is a blank slate at birth ( tabula rasa ) and all knowledge results from experiences that enter the mind from the experiences of the body. Knowledge of ideas is possible because ideas are representations of things experienced. But if representations are copies of our experiences, just how accurate are they?
    ::对于洛克来说,思想是天生的空板(tabula rasa),所有知识都来自从身体经历中进入思想的体验。 了解思想是可能的,因为思想是经验的体现。 但如果陈述是经验的复制件,那么它们是否准确呢?

    Locke distinguished the primary and secondary qualities of an object of an experience and opened a door to a major problem in determining just how accurate sense knowledge could ever be. Locke distinguished the properties that where in or with the object and those that existed within the mind of the subject of the experience. The object has a texture but the idea of “smoothness” is in the subject. The object had a degree of heat but “hot” and “cold” are ideas in the knower.
    ::洛克(Locke)区分了经验对象的初级和次要素质,打开了大门,找出了在确定正确感知可能永远是何等准确感知方面一个重大问题。洛克(Locke)区分了该对象内或与该对象有关的特性以及该对象思想中存在的特性。该对象具有质地,但“吸附”的概念在主题中。该对象具有一定程度的热度,但“热度”和“冷度”是知识者的想法。

    John Locke on Epistemology
    ::John Locke 研究经济学的John Locke

    David Hume
    ::戴维·休姆

    Hume was a skeptic. He  agreed with Locke that we are born with a blank slate, tabla rasa   and that all our knowledge comes through the senses (empiricism), but he did not think that we could know all that much for certain. (skepticism).  He held that are perceptions are or make impressions which are our thought, that we have no ideas without sense impressions, that reasoning ( a priori ) does not lead to knowledge, that sense impressions are not proof of an external independent reality.
    ::休姆是一个怀疑论者。他同意洛克的观点,即我们生来就是白板,塔普拉拉萨,我们的知识都来自感官(精神主义 ) , 但他并不认为我们可以肯定地知道那么多。 (怀疑主义 ) 。 他认为,这些观念或给人留下的印象是我们的想法,我们没有没有没有感官的印象,理性(先验性)不会导致知识,感官印象不是外部独立现实的证明。

    Empiricism (David Hume)
    ::经验主义(David Hume)

    Problems with Empiricism
    ::经验主义问题

    The empiricists could not overcome problems with accounting for forms of knowledge that did not relate to the senses, e.g., in mathematics and in logic.  And they could not account for how it could be that humans can have knowledge for which there is no direct experience, for example of the universe as a whole or of subatomic events or quanta of energy, entities for which there can be no direct experience.
    ::经验论者无法克服计算与感官无关的知识形式的问题,比如数学和逻辑学。 他们也无法解释人类如何能够拥有没有直接经验的知识,比如整个宇宙或亚原子事件或能源夸脱,这些实体不可能有直接经验。

    The Epistemological Theory of Immanuel Kant
    ::Immanuel Kant 的神学理论

    For Kant there is:
    ::对于康德来说,有:

    • Unity of consciousness
      ::意识团结
    • Unity of being
      ::团结的团结
    • Unifying act of the mind
      ::统一思想的行为

    To account for this and our relation to being, Kant postulates that there must exist rules for thoughts, which he calls categories that are innate and necessary for understanding.  Without such rules operating there is no way to account for our knowledge of such ideas as:
    ::康德认为,必须制定思想规则,他称之为内在的、理解所必需的类别。 没有这种规则,我们就无法解释我们对下列思想的知识:

    • substance
      ::物质
    • space
      ::空间空间空间
    • time
      ::时间
    • unity
      ::团结团结
    • plurality
      ::数数数
    • cause and effect
      ::和效果
    • possibility
      ::可能性的可能性
    • necessity
      ::危急必要性
    • reality
      ::现实现实

    Knowledge has both form and content.
    ::知识既有形式也有内容。

    1. form or structure of knowledge of reality-
      1. reason  
        ::原因原因原因
      2. categories
        ::类别
      3. part of the way in which the mind operates
        ::大脑运行方式的一部分

      ::了解现实原因知识的形式或结构的形式或结构
    2. content of the knowledge of reality
      1. provided through the senses
        ::通过感官提供

      ::通过感官提供的现实知识内容的内容

    So, ideas constitute our experience but, there is a fundamental distinction to be made of two types of knowledge
    ::因此,想法构成我们的经验,但是,对两类知识有根本性的区别。

    1. Knowledge of the thing as it appears through our senses as filtered by the brain- phenomena
      1. This is possible and what we generally call knowledge of the world
        ::这是可能的,我们通常称之为世界知识

      ::透过大脑-视网膜过滤的感官 所见之知之知之知之知之知之知之知知之知知之知之知知知之知知知之知知...
    2. Knowledge of the thing as it is in itself noumena
      1. a thing as it is in itself
        ::事物本身本身

      ::了解事物本身本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身,知道它本身

    This is not possible for humans can never get beyond or away from the categories of the understanding which shape and influence all that the human experiences because humans can never think without using the mind-brain and thus involving its structure and manner of operating.
    ::对于人类来说,这是不可能的,因为人类永远不可能超越或偏离这种理解的范畴,而这种理解的形状和影响了人类的经历,因为人类不会思考而不使用头脑,从而涉及其结构和运作方式。

    For K ant humans will never know things as they are in themselves because humans can never think without their brains and the brains are so structured as to provide for arrangements and ordering and connecting elements for human thought to occur.  It is as if the humans must always see things through colored glasses because they cannot remove them. Therefore the universe will always appear through the tinting of those glasses. Humans will never know how the universe actually looks. Humans may get close, but can not experience the thing itself directly. How do we acquire ideas?
    ::对于康德人来说,他们永远也不会知道事物本身,因为没有他们的大脑,人类永远无法思考,而大脑的结构如此结构化,为人类的思考提供安排、秩序和连接要素。就像人类必须总是通过彩色眼镜看到事物,因为它们不能去除它们。因此宇宙总是通过这些眼镜的涂漆而出现。人类永远不会知道宇宙的真实面貌。人类可能接近,但不能直接体验它本身。我们如何获得想法呢?

    Kant combines ideas of the rationalists and the empiricists.
    ::康德将理性主义者和企业家主义者的观点结合起来。

    Rationalism                           Empiricism
    ::理性主义 经验主义

     innate                                   empirical
    ::内生经验

    a priori                                   from experience
    ::经验的先天性

    How is knowledge organized in the mind? The mind introduces new principles of order into experience and arranges, stores and tests arrangements and then tests the efficacy of those ideas and arrangements.
    ::思想将新的秩序原则引入经验和安排、储存和测试安排,然后检验这些想法和安排的效力。

    T ranscendental idealism
    ::跨时代理想主义

    all propositions are       a priori         empirical
    ::所有主张都是先验经验

                                        analytic        syntheti
    ::分析合成合成

    1. Analytic a priori :  e.g. Math, definitions
      ::分析前置分析:例如数学、定义
    2. Analytic empirical:     don't exist
      ::分析经验:不存在
    3. Synthetic a priori : categories, rules, principles
      1. part of perception
        ::感知部分
      2. part of thought
        ::思想的一部分

      ::原原原原体:类别、规则、原则
    4. Synthetic empirical : all physical claims - this includes all of the sciences.
      ::合成经验:所有物理主张----这包括所有科学。

    Kant's Theory of Epistemology
    ::康德的神学理论

    Kant’s contributions of the distinction of types of knowledge and of the role played by the order of the brain remain a dominating influence over thinking about epistemological issues to this day.
    ::康德对知识类型和大脑秩序作用的区别的贡献, 至今仍是对认知论问题思考的主导影响。

    Immanuel  K ant is considered to be one of the world's greatest philosophers. In his account of epistemological theory of knowledge, called transcendental idealism, he claimed that “the mind of the knower makes an active contribution to experience of objects before us”. He meant that whatever we already know through our experience makes it easier for us to acquire new means of knowledge.
    ::Immanuel Kant被认为是世界上最伟大的哲学家之一,他讲述了知识的认知论理论,称为超凡的理想主义,他说,“知识者的思想对我们面前的物体的经验作出了积极贡献”。 他的意思是,无论我们通过经验已经知道什么,都使我们更容易获得新的知识手段。

    Accordingly, Kant specified two sources of our knowledge, which are the mind’s receptive capacity ( sensibility ), and the mind’s conceptual capacity (understanding). He thought that it would be impossible for people to have any experience of objects, which are not placed in space and time. These conditions of sensibility are due to our consciousness, which must “ apprehend objects as occupying a region of space and persisting for some duration of time”.
    ::因此,康德明确了我们知识的两个来源,即思想的接受能力(感知能力 ) , 思想的概念能力(理解 ) 。 他认为人们不可能对不在空间和时间上的物体有任何经验。 这些感知条件来自我们的意识,我们的意识必须“视物体占领空间区域并持续一段时间 ” 。

    However, sensibility by itself doesn’t make judging objects possible. According to empirical derivation , it also takes understanding, which provides the concepts, the rules for determining what is “common or universal in different representations”. He said, “without sensibility no object would be given to us; and without understanding no object would be thought. Thoughts without content are empty; intuitions without concepts are blind”. He meant that in order to think about some object it takes understanding, which assigns concepts, based on the object’s sensation input, to identify what is common and general about it.
    ::然而,感知本身并不能使判断对象成为可能。 根据经验,它也要求理解,它提供了概念,即确定什么是 " 在不同表述中的共同或普遍性 " 的规则。 他说, " 没有感知,就不会给我们任何物体;没有理解,就不会考虑任何物体。 没有内容的想法是空洞的;没有概念的直觉是盲目的。 " 他的意思是,为了思考某些物体,它需要理解,根据物体的感知性投入指定概念,以确定什么是共同的和一般的。

    Nevertheless, empirical derivation discussed above is not sufficient to explain all of the concepts that arise in the human life, such as causation, substance, self, identity, space, time, etc. It’s due to the fact that these concepts are products of our experience, which is constituted by ideas. Therefore, “Kant postulates that there must exist rules for thoughts, which he calls categories that are innate and necessary for understanding” all of the concepts. In addition to mind’s conceptual contribution to experience only that special set of concepts organized into these fundamental categories of thought make empirical concepts and judgments possible.
    ::尽管如此,上文讨论的经验总结还不足以解释人类生活中出现的所有概念,如因果关系、实质、自我、身份、空间、时间等。 这是因为这些概念是我们经验的产物,而我们的经验是由思想构成的。 因此,“关键假设必须存在思想规则,他称之为内在的和理解所必要的类别 ” 所有概念。 除了思想对经验的概念贡献之外,只有根据这些基本思想分类的特殊概念才可能实现经验概念和判断。

    Although these concepts cannot be experienced directly, they are present when particular judgments of objects take place. Plus, “since objects can only be experienced spatio-temporally , the only application of concepts that yields knowledge is to the empirical...world." Kant rejects any kind of knowledge that goes beyond the bounds of sensation because there can be no objects for the understanding to judge, rightly or wrongly. While Kant is a transcendental idealist he believes the nature of objects as they are in themselves is unknowable to us.
    ::尽管这些概念不能直接经历,但当特定物体的判断发生时,这些概念就存在。 此外,“因为物体只能经历时空,因此产生知识的概念的唯一应用是经验世界。 ”康特拒绝超出感知范围的任何知识,因为不可能有任何对象来判断理解,无论是正确还是错误。虽然康特是一个超凡的理想主义者,但他认为物体本身的性质是不可知的。

    However, the knowledge of appearance is...possible. Therefore, knowledge of the things can never get beyond the categories of understanding, which shape and influence all that the human experiences. Accordingly, human will never know how the universe actually looks because they aren’t able to think without any arrangement and order of elements. Kant’s theory of knowledge combines rationalism and the empiricism in his account to distinct types of knowledge and the principles of mind‘s order.
    ::然而,外观知识是有可能的。 因此,对事物的知识永远不可能超越理解的范畴,而理解的种类影响和影响人类经历。 因此,人类永远不会知道宇宙的真面目,因为他们没有任何安排和元素顺序就无法思考。 康特的知识理论将理性主义和他所描述的共性与不同类型的知识和思想秩序原则结合起来。

    Skepticism
    ::怀疑论主义

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    Skepticism is the belief that some or all human knowledge is impossible. Since even our best methods for learning about the world sometimes fall short of perfect certainty, skeptics argue, it is better to suspend belief than to rely on the dubitable products of reason. Classical skeptics include Pyrrho and Sextus Empiricus. In the modern era, Montaigne, Mayle, and Hume all advocated some form of skeptical philosophy. Fallibilism is a more moderate response to the lack of certainty. 
    ::怀疑论者认为,怀疑论者认为,怀疑论者相信某些或所有人类知识是不可能的。 即便我们了解世界的最佳方法有时也缺乏完全的确定性。 怀疑论者认为,中止信仰比依赖理性的可比喻产品更好。 古典怀疑论者包括皮尔霍和Sexitus Empiricus。 在现代,蒙泰尼、梅勒和休姆都主张某种形式的怀疑哲学。 堕落是对缺乏确定性的一种较温和的反应。

    The Problem of Skepticism
    ::怀疑论论问题

    A degree of skepticism is quite healthy as a counterpoint to being too credulous and being taken in by poor reasoning and illusions or deliberate attempts to mislead and deceive.  Skepticism holds that it is not possible to have knowledge is self-defeating and not productive.  There should be a skeptical inquiry that is used before humans reach conclusions and decide which beliefs they will hold. There is a sort of positive skepticism that urges caution and all deliberate care and critique before drawing conclusions or setting beliefs but does not reject the possibility of either achieving knowledge or gaining closer proximity to knowledge and truth.
    ::某种程度的怀疑主义是相当健康的,它是一种对过于可信和被错误的推理和幻想或有意误导和欺骗的企图所吞噬的反点。怀疑主义认为,不可能掌握知识是自欺欺人,是没有成果的。在人类得出结论和决定他们将持有何种信仰之前,应该使用一种怀疑性的调查。有一种积极的怀疑主义,这种怀疑主义要求人们在得出结论或确定信仰之前谨慎行事,并故意谨慎和批评,但并不拒绝获得知识或接近知识和真理的可能性。

    Philosophical Applications
    ::哲学应用

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    EPISD Critical Knowledge and Creative Thinkers Goal
    ::EPISD 关键知识和创意思想者目标

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    1. How much and what type of evidence or support is needed to warrant a claim to know something?
      ::需要多少和何种证据或支持才能证明自己知道些什么?

    NOTE: Different types of knowledge would require different types of support. What would be needed and how much to prove a claim to know something?
    ::注:不同类型的知识需要不同类型的支持,需要什么以及需要多少才能证明某一声称知道某事?

    1. Is truth relative, or a matter of opinion?
      ::真理是相对的,还是意见的问题?

    Read the following quote and answer the question.
    ::阅读以下引文并回答问题。

    “How often has it happened to me that in the night I dreamt that I found myself in this particular place…while in reality I was lying in bed.”
    ::“我常常在晚上梦见自己身处这个特定的地方......而实际上我躺在床上。”

    1. Can you be certain that you’re not dreaming right now? If so, how?
      ::你能肯定你现在不是在做梦吗?

    Vocabulary
    ::词汇表

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    EPISD Effective Bilingual Eduacation Goal
    ::EPISD 有效双语教育目标