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  • 真相和科学真相

    Truth Overview
    ::真相概述

    lesson content

     

    There are several different theories of what truth is. It turns out that as with most questions in philosophy, the question “what is truth?” Does not have a simple answer. 
    ::关于什么是真理,有几个不同的理论。 事实证明,与哲学中的大多数问题一样,“什么是真理? ”问题并没有简单的答案。

    The conformity of a proposition to the way things are. Precise analysis of the nature of truth is the subject of the correspondence, coherence, pragmatic, redundancy, and semantic theories of truth.
    ::对真相性质的精确分析是真理的对应性、一致性、务实性、冗余性和语义理论的主题。

    Theories of Truth
    ::真理理论

    Correspondence Theory of Truth
    ::对应的真相理论

    This is the theory most people are brought up to believe but it has too many problems with it to be the complete answer. A claim is made about the universe.  We go and check out the claim with observations and physical measuring devices. This is understood by many people in the simplest way. A claim is made about the physical universe and people want to go and check it out. Is that so for all claims?
    ::这是大多数人信服的理论,但有太多问题,无法完全回答。对宇宙有主张。我们用观察和物理测量设备去检查这些主张。许多人最简单地理解这一点。对物理宇宙有主张,人们也想去检查。所有主张都是这样吗?

    The theory is based on the belief that a proposition is true when it conforms with some fact or state of affairs. While this theory properly emphasizes the notion that propositions are true when they correspond to reality, its proponents often have difficulty explaining what facts are and how propositions are related to them.
    ::理论依据的信念是,当一个主张符合某些事实或现状时,它就是真实的。 虽然这个理论正确地强调了一个概念,即如果它符合现实,它就是真实的,但它的支持者往往很难解释什么是事实,什么是事实,什么是与事实或事态有关。

    • There exists an independent realm of facts: reality
      ::存在一个独立的事实领域:现实
    • Truth is the correspondence of belief with fact
      ::真理是信仰与事实的对应
    • Belief corresponds to facts = truth
      ::信仰与事实相对应 = 真理
    • Belief does not correspond to facts = false
      ::信仰与事实不符=虚假

    Correspondence Theory of Truth
    ::对应的真相理论

    Problem:
    ::问题:

    Verification involves subjective experiences as to both observations and require interpretations.
    ::核查涉及对两种意见的主观经验,需要解释。

    Example 1
    ::例1

    Claims are made about things that are very large; such as galaxies and the entire universe, as to its shape and size and duration that are beyond the ability of any human to have a direct experience of it.
    ::声称的东西非常大,例如星系和整个宇宙,其形状、大小和持续时间超出了任何人类直接体验的能力。

    Example 2 .
    ::实例2。

    Claims are made about things that are very small such as sub atomic particles and small quanta of energy, bosons, gluons, neutrinos, charm particles and the like which no human can have a direct experience of.
    ::有关的东西非常小,例如亚原子粒子和小量的能量、bosons、gluons、中微子、魅力粒子等等,没有人能够直接体验到。

    Example 3:
    ::例 3:

    A simple claim: There is a container of milk in the refrigerator.
    ::简单索赔:冰箱里有一箱牛奶。

    To determine whether or not this is true all one needs to do is to go to the refrigerator and check. Would the claim be true if:
    ::要确定这是否属实,需要做的就是去冰箱检查。如果:

    1. There is a bottle of milk there?
      ::那里有一瓶牛奶吗?
    2. There is a wax container of milk there.
      ::那里有一个牛奶蜡盒。
    3. There is a wax container of powdered milk there?
      ::那里有奶粉蜡盒吗?
    4. There is a wax container of parmalat there?
      ::那里有一袋葡萄酒吗?

    Some answer yes it would be true in all 4 cases.  Some think it is only true in case B.  It all depends on what you mean by "container." For some, it means a wax container.  For others, it may mean any object that holds any sort of contents.
    ::有些回答是肯定的。 在所有四个例子中, 这都是真的。 有些人认为只有在B例中才是真的。 这一切都取决于你所说的“ 容器” 。 有些人认为它是指蜡盒。 对另一些人来说,它可能是指任何含有任何种类内容的物体。

    Example 4
    ::例4

    Is the following claim true or not?
    ::以下说法是否属实?

    Bill Clinton: “ I did not have sexual relations with that woman," i.e. Monica Lewinski.
    ::比尔·克林顿:“我没有与那个女人发生性关系”,即Monica Lewinski。

    It all depends on what you mean by "sex". For some, it means any act involving the sexual organs being stimulated to the point of organs. For others, it might mean only the penetration of the penis into a vagina and only for beings of the same species. 
    ::对于某些人来说,这意味着性器官被刺激到器官点的任何行为。对另一些人来说,它可能意味着只有阴茎插入阴道,而且只有同一种物种的生物才能进入阴道。

    Coherence Theory of Truth
    ::事实的一致性理论

    This explains how scientists can make claims about the very large and small objects using a system of claims already accepted to be true.
    ::这就解释了科学家如何利用已经承认为真实的一套索赔制度,对非常大和小的物体提出索赔。

    The theory is the belief that a proposition is true to the extent that it agrees with other true propositions. In contrast with the correspondence theory's emphasis on an independent reality, this view supposes that reliable beliefs constitute an inter-related system, each element of which entails every other. 
    ::理论认为,一个主张只要与其他真实主张一致,就属实。 与对应理论强调独立现实相反,这种观点认为,可靠的信念构成一个相互关联的体系,其中的每个要素都包含其他所有要素。

    From Correspondence to Coherence
    ::从通信到一致性

    • Truth is a property of a related group of consistent statements 
      ::真相是一组前后一致的相关陈述的财产
    • Truth is a property of a related group of consistent statements
      ::真相是一组前后一致的相关陈述的财产
    1. What if other judgments (statements) are false? Consistent error is possible?
      ::如果其他判决是虚假的,则会怎样呢?有可能出现一贯的错误。
    2. Coherence theory in the last analysis seems to involve a correspondence for the first judgments must be verified directly. How?
      ::上次分析中的一致性理论似乎涉及对第一批判决的对应性,必须直接核实。

    Pragmatic Theory of Truth
    ::实用的真相理论

    This theory is the belief that a proposition is true when acting upon it yields satisfactory practical results. As formulated by William James, the pragmatic theory promises (in the long term) a convergence of human opinions upon a stable body of scientific propositions that have been shown in experience to be successful principles for human action.
    ::这一理论认为,在根据这一理论采取行动时,一个主张确实能够产生令人满意的实际结果。 正如威廉·詹姆斯(William James)所言,务实理论承诺(从长远来看)将人类观点汇合到稳定的科学主张上,从经验中可以看出,这些科学主张是人类行动的成功原则。

    Examines how beliefs work in practice, the practical difference. Truth of a belief is determined by evaluating how well the belief satisfies the whole of human nature over a long period of time: How well does it work? What are its consequences?
    ::研究信仰在实践中如何运作,实际差异如何。一个信仰的真相是通过评估信仰在很长一段时间里在多大程度上满足了整个人类的特性来决定的:信仰如何运作?其后果是什么?

    Pragmatic Theory of Truth-A Problem to be Solved
    ::有待解决的真相问题实用理论

    Problems:
    ::问题:

    1. What is justified for one community to believe may not be true!!!!
      ::为何一个族群有理由相信可能不是真的!
    2. How to explain errors? Falsehoods ?
      ::如何解释错误?
    3. It makes truth relative.
      1. No absolute truth.
        ::没有绝对的真理。
      2. No objective truth.
        ::没有客观的真相。
      3. Many truths at once!
        ::立刻说出许多真相!

      ::它使真理相对,没有绝对的真理,没有客观的真理,同时有许多真理!
    4. Self-refuting basic claims:
      ::自行驳回的基本索赔:

    The pragmatic theory makes the claims that :
    ::实事求是的理论认为:

    1. There is no objective knowledge
      ::没有客观知识
    2. There is no absolute knowledge
      ::没有绝对的知识
    3. There is no objective truth
      ::没有客观的真相
    4. There is no absolute truth
      ::没有绝对的真理

    If these claims are true then they would refute themselves. If all claims are true only within a community that accepts them as true then the claims above (a to d) are only true within the communities that accept them as being true by whatever criteria they use and think has been satisfied. So within the community of pragmatists the claims would be true but for others they would not be true and thus there is affirmed a series of contradictions.
    ::如果这些主张是真实的,那么它们就会反驳自己。 如果所有主张只有在一个接受它们为真实的族群内才是真实的,那么以上(a至d)项主张只有在那些按照他们使用和认为已经得到满足的任何标准认为它们为真实的族群内才是真实的。 因此,在实用主义的族群内,这些主张是真实的,而对其他人而言,它们不是真实的,因此存在一系列的矛盾。

    Pragmatists would by their principles and theories accept that claims above (a to d) are true and not true at the same time! Pragmatists overlook a number of things. There are different types of claims and it is only the empirical, aesthetic, and ethical claims that appear to be troublesome. The empirical claims can be resolved as to their accuracy. This is so because  there is a difference between truth and justified belief which pragmatism overlooks.
    ::实用主义者根据其原则和理论会承认(a至d)项以上的权利主张是真实的,而并不同时是真实的。 实用主义者忽略了许多事情。 存在不同类型的权利主张,只有经验、审美和道德主张似乎很麻烦。 经验主义主张的准确性是可以解决的。 这是因为真理与理性信仰之间有区别,而务实主义却忽略了这些区别。

    C.S. Pierce’s solution was to postulate an ideal community of inquirers who would come to agreement concerning what is known and what is true in the infinite long run of time.  C. S. Pierce held that there was but one reality. Truth is what an ideal community would believe in the long run of time.This is particularly true for empirical claims.
    ::C.S.Pierce的解决方案是假设一个理想的查询者群体,他们将就已知的和在无限长的时间里真实的情况达成一致。 C.S.Pierce认为,只有一个现实。 真理是一个理想社区在长期里会相信什么。 这对经验性主张来说尤其如此。

    However there are many post modernist pragmatists who have abandoned the idea of an objective truth and objective knowledge.
    ::然而,许多后现代主义实用主义者放弃了客观真相和客观知识的理念。

    Rorty thus is emphasizing the nature of all human knowledge as "made" rather than "found." Rorty is mostly content to point out the fallacy of trying to pursue objective reality. H is makes truth  something  that is psychological . What difference do the beliefs make if they are true? Truth is whatever has met a society's criteria for justification. For pragmatists like R ichard Rorty, there is no objective truth at all. All claims need only satisfy the group’s expectations for verification. Science is just one of many groups with its own rules and criteria. As there are multiple groups with different criteria there can be multiple truths. 
    ::因此,罗蒂强调人类知识的本质是“制造的”而不是“发现 ” 。罗蒂主要满足于指出试图追求客观现实的谬误。他使真理成为了心理上的东西。如果信仰是真实的,它会有什么区别?真理是符合社会合理标准的东西。对于理查德·罗蒂这样的实用主义者来说,根本没有客观的真理。所有主张都只需要满足该集团对核查的期望。科学只是拥有自身规则和标准的众多团体之一。因为有许多具有不同标准的团体,可能有多种真理。

    This makes truth  something that is psychological. What difference do the beliefs make if they are true? Truth is whatever has met a society's criteria for justification . For pragmatists like R ichard Rorty, there is no objective truth at all.  All claims need only satisfy the group’s expectations for verification . Science is just one of many groups with its own rules and criteria.  As there are multiple groups with different criteria there can be multiple truths. 
    ::这使真理变成一种心理上的真理。 如果信仰是真实的,那么信仰会有什么区别?真理是符合社会合理标准的东西。 对于理查德·罗蒂这样的实用主义者来说,根本没有客观的真理。 所有的主张都只需要满足团体对核查的期望。 科学只是拥有自身规则和标准的许多团体之一。 有很多团体,它们的标准不同,因此可能有多重真理。

    Logical Empiricism
    ::逻辑经验学

    For the logical empiricist movement the truth of a proposition rests on how well it is verified.  For them what makes a proposition true or false would be how well it checks out through a process of verification.
    ::对于符合逻辑的共产主义运动来说,一项主张的真相取决于它被核实的程度。 对他们来说,使一项主张成为真实或虚假的,是它通过核查过程核查的好坏。

    The answer is that we test the validity of an empirical hypothesis by seeing whether it actually fulfills the function which it is designed to fulfill. And we have seen that the function of an empirical hypothesis is to enable us to anticipate experience. Accordingly, if an observation to which a given proposition is relevant conforms to our expectations, the truth of that proposition is confirmed. There is no certainty in this operation. If the experiment comes off according to expectations then credibility has been enhanced . There is no question that it will be repeated. If it does not, then questions about the experiment may be raised; if it is successful again, greater probability of being true is attached to the statement. 
    ::答案是,我们检验一个经验假设的有效性,看它是否真正履行了它设计要履行的功能。我们已经看到,一个经验假设的作用是让我们能够预测经验。因此,如果与某一个主张相关的观察意见符合我们的期望,那么该主张的真相就会得到证实。在这个操作中,没有确定性。如果实验按照期望进行,那么可信度就会提高。毫无疑问,它会重复。如果它没有实现,那么关于试验的问题就会被提出;如果它再次成功,说明中就会有更大的真实可能性。

    Thus the best that is offered is that at the present time a proposition would have a certain amount of support and of verification .
    ::因此,所提出的最佳建议是,目前一项提议将得到一定的支持和核查。

    Does Truth Matter?
    ::真相重要吗?

    lesson content

    EPISD Critical Knowledge and Creative Thinking Goal
    ::EPISD 关键知识和创造性思维目标

    If objectivity is rejected, every groups claims would be equal. So the claims of the following ideologies would be true: racism, sexism, Nazism, etc... According to this post modern theory of truth all claims are ideologies . Must all claims be accepted as true at once? 
    ::如果拒绝客观性,每个群体都声称是平等的。 因此,对以下意识形态的主张是真实的:种族主义、性别主义、纳粹主义等等。 ......根据这一后世现代真理理论,所有主张都是意识形态。 所有主张都必须同时被接受为真实?

    With empirical claims how can it be that there would not be some basis for truth that would rule out inconsistent and contradictory claims from all being true at once? How could it be true that the earth would be flat and spherical at the same time? 
    ::凭经验性主张,怎么可能没有某种事实依据来排除不一致和矛盾的主张,使所有主张立即成为事实? 地球怎么可能同时是平坦和球形的呢?

    Even with claims about non-physical entities, how could it be that there are more than one truth as when:
    ::即使对非有形实体提出指控,但怎么可能有一个以上的真相,如:

    • Group A  thinks it is true that people have souls
      ::A组认为人们有灵魂是事实
    • Group B  thinks that there are no souls
      ::B组认为没有灵魂

    How can the claims to truth for both group A  and group B  be true at the same time?
    ::A组和B组既声称了解真相,又声称了解真相,这怎么可能同时发生呢?

    Does Truth Matter?- Carl Sagan
    ::真相重要吗?

    Truth, Conflicts, and Power
    ::真相、冲突和权力

    Must we tolerate and respect all groups even those with conflicting claims? How is it to be resolved when there are conflicts? For the pragmatists, all the criteria for resolution are criteria that groups have developed. It will then always come down to which group has the most power. For pragmatists and postmodern thinkers: power is knowledge
    ::我们是否必须容忍和尊重所有群体,即使是那些相互对立的主张;在发生冲突时如何解决?对于实用主义者来说,所有解决的标准都是各群体已经形成的标准。 然后,它总是会落到哪个群体拥有最强大的地位。对于实用主义者和后现代思想家来说,权力就是知识。

    There is a cynicism with pragmatists such as Rorty and other post modernists who would deny that there is "truth" as objective. They claim that truth is only and whatever those in power have persuaded people to believe. They accept that truth is whatever experts happen to agree upon but not that it relates to anything that is "objective". They make truth something based on the consent or agreement of the folks who wish to claim that truth. Such cynics make truth depend on nothing "objective" and deny that there is anything that is "objective". The resolution of conflicting claims concerning what is true lies not in any reference to an objective reality or to an objective truth but to whatever criteria the group holds for the resolution of claims. If two groups have two different sets of criteria then the group with the most power will determine what truth is by its criteria and impose it upon the others who will go on thinking that their original ideas were true anyway. There will be two truths at once over the same situation. This will apply to claims as to what is real as well as to what is true.
    ::罗蒂和其他现代论者等实用论者认为,真理是客观的,他们认为真相只是事实,而不论掌权者劝说人们相信什么。他们承认真相是专家碰巧同意的,而不是与任何“客观”有关。他们根据希望声称真相的人的同意或同意,作出真理。这些怀疑者使真相不依赖任何“客观”,否认存在任何“客观”的东西。关于事实的矛盾主张的解决不在于客观的现实或客观真相,而在于该团体对解决权利主张所持的任何标准。如果两组人有两套不同的标准,那么拥有最大权力的团体将决定真相是什么,然后将它强加给那些认为他们最初的想法是真实的其他人。在同样的情况下,将同时有两个真理。这将适用于真实和真实的主张。

    One group may use the scientific method and hold to the criteria of science and another group may use consultation with a shaman and the shaman's  mystical experiences as the basis for truth and the results of each approach are thought to be the truth by each group and for the pragmatists both are correct at the same time. A large rock in the American museum of natural history can be a meteorite for the group using science and a messenger from the sky god for the original peoples at the same time.
    ::一个团体可以使用科学方法,坚持科学标准,另一个团体可以使用与萨满人和萨满人的神秘经历协商作为真理的基础,每个团体认为每种方法的结果都是真理,而实用主义者认为两者同时是正确的。 美国自然历史博物馆的大块岩石可以成为该团体使用科学的陨石,同时也是天空神为原始民族派遣的使者。

    It can be true for one group that (Jews, blacks, and women) are inferior to (Christians, whites, or men) and for another group the opposite can be true at the same time according to this theory. One of the values that pragmatists attempt to promote is tolerance and in the name of tolerance and for the sake of tolerance people are asked to respect the right of others to hold their own views. Yet if a person holds the view that tolerance is wrong then they can be right and tolerance can be both good and bad at the same time. This theory results in applications of political power to resolve conflicts and has not lead to a more tolerant set of societies in this world.
    ::一个群体(犹太人、黑人和妇女)比(基督教、白人或男子)低劣,而另一个相反群体,根据这一理论,两者可以同时发生。 实用主义者试图促进的价值观之一是宽容,以宽容为名,为了宽容,要求人们尊重他人持有自己观点的权利。 但是,如果一个人认为宽容是错误的,那么他们可以是正确和坏的,宽容也可以是好的和坏的。 这一理论导致政治力量被用于解决冲突,并没有导致这个世界上更加宽容的社会。

    Philosophy and the Truth
    ::哲学和真理

    Redundancy Theory of Truth
    ::" 真相 " 脱离理论

    Belief that it is always logically superfluous to claim that a proposition is true, since this claim adds nothing further to a simple affirmation of the proposition itself. "It is true that I  am bald." means the same thing as "I am bald."
    ::认为声称一个主张是真实的,这在逻辑上总是多余的,因为这一主张对简单地确认这一主张本身没有任何补充。 “我确实秃了。” 意思与“我是秃头”相同。

    Why Truth Matters?
    ::为什么是真相问题?

    Truth has fallen victim to a proliferation of behaviors that diminish the importance of truth in popular culture.  Among the behaviors are the increase in use of what is known as "truthiness" and "bullshit" as well as denialism and postmodern ideas of relativism , denying that there is or can be truth.
    ::真相已经成为削弱真相在大众文化中重要性的行为扩散的牺牲品。 这些行为包括越来越多地使用所谓的“真理”和“胡说八道 ” , 以及否定主义和后现代相对主义思想,否认存在或可能存在真理。

    On Bullshit
    ::胡说八道

    In his essay On Bullshit (originally written in 1986, and published as a monograph in 2005), philosopher Harry Frankfurt of Princeton University characterizes bullshit as a form of falsehood distinct from lying. The liar, Frankfurt holds, knows and cares about the truth, but deliberately sets out to mislead instead of telling the truth. The "bullshitter", on the other hand, does not care about the truth and is only seeking to impress.
    ::普林斯顿大学哲学家哈利·法兰克福(Harry Frankfurk)在《胡说八道》(原创于1986年,2005年出版,专著于2005年出版 ) 的论文中,将胡说八道描述为一种与谎言截然不同的虚假形式。 法兰克福(Harry Frankfurk)的骗子坚持、了解和关心真相,但故意误导而不是说出真相。 另一方面,“混蛋”并不关心真相,而只是试图给人留下深刻印象。

    Is it impossible for someone to lie unless he thinks he knows the truth. Producing bullshit requires no such conviction. A person who lies is thereby responding to the truth, and he is to that extent respectful of it. When an honest man speaks, he says only what he believes to be true; and for the liar, it is correspondingly indispensable that he considers his statements to be false. For the bullshitter, however, all these bets are off: he is neither on the side of the true nor on  the side of the false. His eye is not on the facts at all, as the eyes of the honest man and of the liar are, except insofar as they may be pertinent to his interest in getting away with what he says. He does not care whether the things he says describe reality correctly.  He just picks them out, or makes them up, to suit his purpose.
    ::人若不自觉地知道真理,是不可能说谎的。谁假借真理而造谣,谁不欲受这样的判决。谁假借真理而造谣,谁对真理是真实的,谁尊重他。当诚实的人说话的时候,他只说他认为真实的话;对于说谎者来说,他所捏造的(偶像),是毫无裨益的。如果他假借真理而造谣,那末,他不假借真理而造谣。他的眼睛,全非事实,正如诚实的人和说谎者的眼睛所见的一样,除非那些话与他所说的话有关。他不关心他所说的是真实的,他只顾不理会他所说的话。他只取出来这些话,或捏造那些话,以便符合他的目的。

    Denialism
    ::否认主义

    In Science, denialism has been defined as the rejection of basic concepts that are undisputed and well-supported parts of the scientific consensus on a topic in favor of ideas that are both radical and controversial. It has been proposed that the various forms of denialism have the common feature of the rejection of overwhelming evidence and the generation of a controversy through attempts to deny that a consensus exists.  A common example is young earth creationism and its dispute with the evolutionary theory.
    ::在科学领域,否认主义被定义为拒绝基本概念,这些基本概念是科学共识中无可争议和得到有力支持的部分,有利于激进和有争议的思想。 有人提出,各种形式的否定主义具有拒绝压倒性证据和通过试图否认存在共识而引起争议的共同特征。 一个共同的例子是年轻的地球创造主义及其与进化理论的争议。

    The terms Holocaust denialism and AIDS  denialism have been used and the term climate change denialists has been applied to those who argue against the scientific consensus that global warming is occurring and that human activity is its primary cause.  Use of the word denialism has been criticized, for example as a polemical propaganda tool to suppress non-mainstream views. Similarly, in an essay discussing the general importance of skepticism, Clive James objected to the use of the word denialist to describe climate change skeptics, stating that it "calls up the spectacle of a fanatic denying the Holocaust." Celia Farber has objected to the term AIDS  denialists arguing that it is unjustifiable to place this belief on the same moral level with the Nazi crimes against humanity.  However, Robert Gallo et al. Defended this latter comparison, stating that AIDS  denialism is similar to Holocaust denial as it is a form of pseudoscience that "contradicts an immense body of research."
    ::反对全球升温和人类活动是其首要原因的科学共识的人使用了大屠杀否认论和艾滋病否认论这两个术语,气候变化否认论者也使用了气候变化否认论者这一术语。否认论一词被批评为压制非主流观点的两极宣传工具。同样,在讨论怀疑论的普遍重要性的一篇论文中,Clive James反对使用否认论者来描述气候变化怀疑论者,指出它“唤起狂热否认大屠杀的风光。”Celia Farber反对艾滋病否认论者认为没有理由将这种信仰与纳粹反人类罪置于同样的道德水平。然而,Robert Gallo等人维护了后一比较,指出艾滋病否认论与否认大屠杀相似,因为它是一种伪科学,“与巨大的研究体相悖”。

    Several motivations for denialism have been proposed, including religious beliefs and self-interest, or as a psychological defense mechanism against disturbing ideas.
    ::提出了若干否定主义的动机,包括宗教信仰和自我利益,或作为对付令人不安的思想的心理防御机制。

    Relativism is the concept that points of view have no absolute truth or validity , having only relative, subjective value according to differences in perception and consideration. The term is often used to refer to the context of moral principle, where in a relativistic mode of thought, principles and ethics are regarded as applicable in only limited context. There are many forms of relativism which vary in their degree of controversy. The term often refers to truth relativism, which is the doctrine that there are no absolute truths, i.e., that truth is always relative to some particular frame of reference, such as a language or a culture.  Another widespread and contentious form is moral relativism.
    ::相对论的概念是,观点没有绝对的真理或有效性,根据认识和考虑的不同,只有相对的主观价值,该词经常用来指道德原则的背景,在相对主义的思想、原则和伦理模式中,认为只能在有限的背景下适用,有许多形式的相对论,其争议程度各不相同,该词常常指真理相对论,即没有绝对真理的理论,即真理总是相对某种特定的参照框架,如语言或文化,另一种普遍和有争议的形式是道德相对论。

    There is a cynicism regarding truth or objective truth. There also exists the desire to believe what is useful to believe and to believe that what matters are the consequences.  In reaction to this there is not to be a promotion of truth that is conservative in advocating an allegiance to you beliefs. This is not truth but dogma. There is not to be support for the liberal equation of truth with absolute certain truth. This then would promote relativism.
    ::对真理或客观真理存在怀疑。 还有一种愿望是相信什么是有用的,相信什么是有用的,相信什么是重要的后果。 对此,不应该有主张忠于你信仰的保守的寻求真理的做法。这不是真理,而是教条。 真理的自由等同与绝对肯定的真理是站不住脚的。 这样做将促进相对主义。

    Truth Does Matter
    ::真相与真相无关

    Without truth there is no support for outrage over atrocities if all reports are of equal truth value and treated as just text. Truth and its pursuit are politically important especially the need to distinguish right answers from wrong answers, true from false reports about the world
    ::如果所有报告都具有同等的真理价值,并被当作公正的文本对待,那么,如果所有报告都具有同等的真理价值,并被视为公正的文本,那么,没有真相就没有支持对暴行的暴行的愤怒。 真相及其追求在政治上非常重要,特别是需要区分正确答案和错误的答案,真实答案和虚假的世界报道,真相及其追求具有政治重要性。

    1. If there is no truth or if all truth is relative then
      1. Criticisms are not permissible
        ::不允许批评
      2. Dissent is not permissible or supportable
        ::不允许或不可支持持不同意见

      ::如果没有真相,或者如果所有真相都是相对的,那么批评是不允许的,反对是不允许的,或者是不能支持的。
    2. The idea of a fundamental right or human right is undermined as they presuppose some idea of truth.
      ::基本权利或人权的概念受到破坏,因为它们预先假定了某种真理的概念。
    3. Truth is a necessary condition asserting the existence of any human right apart from what government decrees
      ::真相是除政府法令外确认存在任何人权的必要条件。
    4. Truth is necessary to reject the idea that believing in claim x makes claim x true.
      ::要否认相信索赔x使索赔x真实的想法,真相是必要的。

    It follows that a necessary condition for fundamental rights is a distinction between what the government -- in the wide sense of the term -- says is so and what is true. That is, in order for me to understand that I have fundamental rights, it must be possible for me to have the following thought: that even though everyone else in my community thinks that, for example, same-sex marriages should be outlawed, people of the same sex still have a right to be married.  But I  couldn't have that thought unless I was able to entertain the idea that believing doesn't make things so, that there is something that my thoughts can respond to other than the views of my fellow citizens, powerful or not. The very concept of a fundamental right, presupposes the concept of truth. Take-home lesson: if you care about your rights, you had better care about truth.
    ::因此,基本权利的一个必要条件就是区分政府 -- -- 从广义上讲 -- -- 所说的话是真实的和真实的。也就是说,为了让我理解我拥有基本权利,我必须能够有以下想法:即使我们社区中的其他人认为,例如同性婚姻应该被取缔,同性婚姻仍然有权结婚。但是,我无法有这种想法,除非我能够想到,信仰不会使事情变得如此,我的想法除了我的同胞的观点之外,还有其他东西可以反映。基本权利的概念本身就以真理的概念为前提。学到家:如果你关心自己的权利,你就会更关心真相。

    • Governmental transparency and freedom of information are the basis of a defense against tyranny.
      ::政府透明度和信息自由是抵御暴政的基础。
    • Truth is important for the integrity of the democratic process.
      ::真相对于民主进程的完整性至关重要。

    But the anti-tyranny argument will be of interest to those whose government is not yet tyrannical, but who fear it is heading in that direction. In brief, the anti-tyranny argument is precisely the sort of argument that is of interest to concerned citizens of a liberal democracy like our own. Unless the government strives to tell the truth, liberal democracies are no longer liberal or democratic.
    ::但反专制的论调将对那些政府尚未变得专制,但害怕政府朝这个方向前进的人有利。 简言之,反专制的论调恰恰是像我们这样的自由民主国家有关公民感兴趣的一种论调。 除非政府努力说出真相,否则自由民主已不再是自由或民主的。

    Caring about truth provides a ground and a motivation for our curiosity about the facts and for our commitment to the importance of inquiry. Certain aspects of our experience make it apparent that they are independent of us. That is the origin of our concept of reality, which is essentially a concept of what limits us, of what we cannot alter or control by the mere motion of our will.  We learn our powers and our vulnerabilities .
    ::关心真相为我们对事实的好奇和我们对调查重要性的承诺提供了依据和动机,我们的某些经验表明,它们独立于我们之外,这是我们现实概念的起源,这个概念基本上是限制我们、我们仅凭意志不能改变或控制的东西的概念,我们了解我们的力量和弱点。

    It is only through our recognition of a world of stubbornly independent of reality, fact and truth that we come both to recognize ourselves as being distinct from others and to articulate the specific nature of our own identities.
    ::只有通过我们承认一个顽固地独立于现实、事实和真理的世界,我们才认识到自己有别于他人,并阐明我们自身特性的具体性质。

    Scientific Truth
    ::科学真相

    For logical, semantic, and systemic claims there are methods to determine their truth. It is with regard to the empirical claims about the universe, events and properties of it that is the main concern of the theories about truth. Perhaps the best that humans have been able to do with regard to getting at the truth concerning empirical claims is the development of a method for doing it. In Science there are a number of views that are operative in its various phases.
    ::对于逻辑、语义和系统性的主张,有确定其真相的方法,关于宇宙、事件及其特性的经验性主张,是真理理论的主要关切,或许人类在了解关于经验性主张的真相方面所能做的最好的事情是制定一种方法来做到这一点。在科学中,有一些观点在各阶段都有效。

    1. Instrumentalist view - pragmatist theory
      ::乐器主义观点-实用主义理论

    The scientific theory makes predictions; the predictions are verified and so it works and it satisfies the community of inquirers (the scientists).
    ::科学理论作出预测;预测得到核实,因此有效,使查询者(科学家)群心满意足。

    1. The realist view - correspondence theory
      ::现实主义观点 -- -- 通信理论

    The scientific theory provides true explanations because its predictions are verified through empirical testing.
    ::科学理论提供了真实的解释,因为科学理论的预测是通过经验测试核实的。

    1. The conceptual relativist - coherence theory
      ::概念相对相对主义----一致性理论

    The scientific theory is coherent within a given framework, which coheres or fits in with a system of beliefs
    ::科学理论在特定框架内是一致的,它符合或符合一种信仰体系

    True theory is that which is accepted by the community of working scientists with its own conceptual framework.  Independent checks are not possible because all observations are theory laden. So in the end perhaps the truth concerning empirical claims is that claim which:
    ::真正的理论是工作科学家及其自己的概念框架所接受的理论。 独立检查是不可能的,因为所有观测都是理论累赘的。 因此,归根结底,也许经验性主张的真相就是:

    • Corresponds to fact and
      ::对应事实和事实
    • Coheres with and is consistent with other established truths and
      ::符合并符合其他既定的真理,
    • Has useful consequences for those concerned.
      ::对有关方面有有益影响。

    Perhaps what is the most useful consequence of a belief concerning an empirical claim is to correspond to reality (facts) and to cohere (be consistent) with what has already been accepted as true by the same means.
    ::也许,对实证主张的信念最有益的后果是符合现实(事实),并符合(符合)已经以同样方式被接受为真实的情况。

    Philosophers shall continue to spend time arriving at a more certain foundation for claims of truth. For now what do we have? What is knowledge? To claim to know and to have that claim accepted by others as being correct is to satisfy the criteria that the claim be warranted.  What supplies the warrant is that the claim be justified and true. How is that accomplished or established? Well that depends on the type of claim that it is:
    ::哲学家应该继续花时间为真理的主张找到更确定的基础。现在我们有什么资料呢?什么是知识?声称知道并且让别人接受这一主张是正确的,就是满足要求有正当理由的标准。什么提供授权是证明要求是正当的和真实的。这种要求是如何完成的或确定的?这取决于声称是哪类要求:

    1. Semantic claim: supported by references to dictionaries or lexicons
      ::语义要求:以词典或词典作为佐证
    2. Systemic claim: supported by the rules of the system in which the claim is being made
      ::A. 系统索赔:得到提出索赔制度规则的支持
    3. Logical claim: supported by and consistent with the rules of logic
      ::逻辑索赔:得到逻辑规则支持并符合逻辑规则
    4. Empirical claim: supported by a process of verification that establishes that the empirical claim.
      1. Corresponds to fact and
        ::对应事实和事实
      2. Coheres with and is consistent with other established truths and
        ::符合并符合其他既定的真理,
      3. Has useful consequences for those concerned.
        ::对有关方面有有益影响。

      ::实证主张:由证实实证主张的核查程序作为佐证,证明实证主张与事实相符,符合并符合其他既定事实,对有关人员具有有益影响。

    This may be the best explanation that humans have for what and how they know what they claim to know. It is not totally satisfying to all critical inquirers but it is more well founded within human experience than the position that there is no knowledge at all or that there is no knowledge that is objective or that there is no knowledge that is certain. There are types or forms of knowledge and within each there are the means to establish the justification for making and accepting claims.
    ::这也许是人类知道自己声称知道什么和如何知道什么的最好解释。它并不是所有关键查询者都完全满意的,但它在人类经验中的基础比完全没有知识或没有客观知识或没有确定知识的立场更充分。有知识的类型或形式,在每一种知识中都有确定提出和接受索赔的理由的手段。

    Does Science = Truth
    ::科学=真理

    Read
    ::已读

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    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers Goal
    ::EPISD 信息化解决问题者目标

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    Vocabulary
    ::词汇表

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    EPISD Effective Bilingual Education Goal
    ::EPISD 有效双语教育目标