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  • 死亡学、神圣司令部和自然法

    Deontology
    ::离子学

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    These theories of the good  hold that actions are intrinsically right or wrong. They are right or wrong in themselves and irrespective of their consequences. They are traditionally associated with Kantian duty but can also be linked to ethical systems, which uphold absolute moral norms and human rights. Deontologists hold that one cannot undertake immoral acts like torture of spies even if the outcome is morally preferable, such as the early ending of a war. It is contrasted with Teleological/Consequentialist ethical theories.  
    ::这些良好理论认为行动本质上是对的或错的,它们本身是对的或错的,不管其后果如何。 它们传统上与康德义务有关,但也可以与维护绝对道德规范和人权的道德体系有关。 德恩特论家认为,即使结果在道德上是可取的,例如战争的早日结束,也不能采取像对间谍的酷刑这样的不道德行为。 与神学/间接学伦理理论相反。

    In a 'Deontological' system of ethics the consequences of an action are generally irrelevant to moral assessment. Rather, morality comes about from a rational agent's recognition of its duties toward others. These duties can be grounded in different ways, from divine revelation to objective rational principles .
    ::在“死亡论”的伦理体系中,行动的后果通常与道德评估无关。 相反,道德来自于理性分子对他人义务的承认。 这些义务可以不同的方式为基础,从神的启示到客观的理性原则。

    While each type of Deontological theory finds the locus of our moral obligations in different places, they all contend that 'goodness' resides in our ability to recognize and keep moral obligations; the consequences of our actions are of only secondary concern, if at all. 
    ::虽然每一种德恩托理学理论都在不同的地方发现我们的道德义务的核心,但他们都认为,“善良”在于我们承认和遵守道德义务的能力;我们行动的后果只是次要问题,如果说只是次要问题的话。

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    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers
    ::EPISD EPISD 信息化解决问题者

    What is Deontological Ethics?
    ::什么是道德伦理学?

     

    Divine Command Theory
    ::神圣指挥神令理论

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    There are ethical theories that make reference to or depend upon the existence of a deity.  Two are presented here in this section. T hey are not the same . Divine Command theory is not used anywhere in the world by the major organized religions. It is mistaken for the foundation of the moral theory of Judaism and Christianity and Islam but it is not so. The Divine Command theory has too many problems with it to be used by large organized religions.  It is used by small cults and by those who are uneducated about what their own religion holds.
    ::有道德理论提到神的存在,或取决于神的存在。本节介绍两种理论。两种理论不同。神圣指挥理论在世界上任何地方都没有被主要的有组织宗教使用。它被误认为犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教的道德理论基础,但并非如此。神圣指挥理论有太多的问题,不能被大型有组织宗教使用。它被小教派和那些不了解自己宗教的人使用。

    Divine Command Theory in Ethics
    ::道德道德神训道德理论

     

    Socrates (469-399 BCE) was one of the first to question this theory.  He asked whether we call the 'g ood'  good because the God's have done it or whether they have done it because it is g ood .  His question implies the possibility of the existence of a standard for the g ood separate from the divine.
    ::苏格拉底(469-399 BCE)是首先质疑这一理论的人之一。 他问道,我们是否认为“好”是因为上帝做的,还是因为他们做的是好事。他的问题意味着存在一种与神分离的善良标准的可能性。

    Religions often base their notion of morality on the character of their God claiming that
    ::宗教的道德观念往往以其上帝的特征为依据,声称:

    1. What is 'good' is good because God commands it and
      ::"好"是好的,因为上帝命令它,
    2. People cannot live moral lives unless they follow God's moral teachings.
      ::除非遵循上帝的道德教义,否则人们就无法过道德生活。
    3. In Christianity it is often believed to be impossible until a person has had their sin dealt with by God. Only then will they be in a position to want to do what God wills and be able to do it. ("The sinful mind is hostile to God. It does not submit to God's law, nor can it do so"). However, this raises questions concerning the relationship between morality and God.  If what is 'good' is good only because God wills it is it not possible that one day God might say that what was previously known as 'bad' is now 'good'? Some might say that this would not happen because we would know God was making something 'bad' good but this means we have an independent criteria by which we can assess God's morality.  If this is the case then we know what is right and wrong without God's intervention-so why bother with God.
      ::在基督教中,人们常常认为自己是不可能的,直到一个人的罪过为真主所判决。只有真主能判决他所意欲者,他们才能判决他所意欲者。只有这样,他们才能判决他所意欲者,并且能判决他所意欲者。(他们说):罪过确是真主所意欲者,他不能判决他。(此处叩头!)※但(此处叩头!)※这是关于善与真主之间关系的(此处叩头!),(此处叩头!)※(此处叩头!)※(此处叩头!)※(此处叩头!)※(此处叩头!)※(此处叩头!)※(此处叩头!)※(此处叩头!)※(此处叩头!)只是因为真主意欲。真主说:以前称为恶的,确是善事,确是善事!今天,真主或许说这件事不会发生,因为我们知道真主做了一件恶事,但愿我们有一条独立的准则,可以用来评定真主的道德。假若这样:我们知道善事,那末,不为真理和不为真主所干涉。

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    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers Goal
    ::EPISD 信息化解决问题者目标

    The Euthyphro Dilemma  goes like this;
    ::Euthyphro Dimma是这样的;

    1. If the good is such because God says it is, then morality is arbitrary (e.g., God condoning all sorts of immoral acts in the Old Testament).
      ::如果善是因为真主说善就是善,那末,道德是任意的。
    2. If the good is absolute, and God cannot do evil, then we don’t need the middle-man to figure out what is good and what is not (e.g., we know that killing innocent children and women, ethnic cleansing, etc. are wrong, period).
      ::如果福利是绝对的, 而上帝不能做坏事, 那么我们就不需要中间人来找出什么是好什么是坏(例如,我们知道杀害无辜儿童和妇女、种族清洗等等是错误的,

    Notice that this is not an argument against the existence of god, only about gods’ irrelevance to morality. Yet, if one cannot avoid either side  of the dilemma, it is difficult to see what the point of religion ultimately is...
    ::请注意,这不是反对神的存在的论点,而只是反对神与道德无关。 然而,如果我们不能避免两面困境,那么很难理解宗教最终的意义何在...。

    The Euthyphro Dilemma Explained
    ::Euthyphro 问题解析

     

    There are many people brought up to accept the Ten Commandments as guides for a moral life and they think that following those commandments would make them adherents to the Divine Command Theory . This is not the case at all.  In Divine Command Theory  the good  is whatever the "god" or deity commands. This means whatever, whenever, and wherever God cpmmands.   Divine Command  Theory  does not rest on scriptures. Divine Command  is Divine Command .   Divine Command  does not stop with the Ten Commandments.  The theory holds that the deity did not go out of existence after issuing those commandments but continues to exist and issues new commandments. The deity can even issue commandments that change the previous commandments and are even in contradiction to them.  In fact, it is often the case that someone claiming to have received a direct command from the deity or god will do something quite inconsistent with or a violation of one of the Ten Commandments, for example killing innocent children because the deity told them to do so.
    ::有许多人接受十诫作为道德生活的向导,他们以为遵守这十诫将使他们成为神令理论的信徒,但事实并非如此。在神圣命令中,善是无论什么“神”或神的命令。这意味着无论何时何地,无论神的旨意。神圣命令理论不以圣经为依据。神圣命令是神圣命令。神圣命令不是神令。神圣命令不停止于十诫。神令认为神灵在发布这些命令之后并没有消失,而是继续存在,并发布新的命令。神灵甚至可以发布改变以前命令的命令,甚至违背它们。事实上,常常有人声称从神明或神灵那里直接接到命令,就会做一些与十诫中的任何命令相矛盾的事情,或违反其中的一项命令。例如,神明命令杀死无辜儿童,因为他们这样做。

    How does anyone know what the "god" or deity commands?  The "god" or deity tells them either directly or through some intermediary or through signs or omens or some experience that those who receive the command claim has been the transmitter of the message or the command.  How exactly do people get the command? Well again it is either directly or indirectly through some intermediary like a person or a written work. Can the deity continue to issue commands after previous recordings?  Yes, the deity can update and change commands as the deity wishes.
    ::谁知道什么是“上帝”或神灵命令?“上帝”或神灵直接或通过某种媒介或通过迹象或预兆或某种经验告诉他们,接受命令要求的人是电文或命令的发送者。人们如何确切地得到命令?这又是直接或间接地通过象一个人或书面工作这样的媒介。神灵能否在以前的录音之后继续发出命令?是的,神灵可以按照神的意愿更新和改变命令。

    There are many problems with this theory.
    ::这一理论有许多问题。

    The religions of the West have rejected Divine Command  Theory and instead hold for Natural Law Theory.  The rejection may be based on the fear of some charismatic person receiving a divine command to change the religion or to kill the leaders of that religion.
    ::西方的宗教拒绝神令理论,而是坚持自然法理论。 这种拒绝可能基于某些有魅力的人在接受改变宗教或杀害该宗教领导人的神圣命令时的恐惧。

    Divine Command  Theory does not rest on scriptures. Divine Command  is Divine Command .
    ::神圣指挥理论不以经文为根据,神圣指挥是神圣指挥。

    1. People claim that god has  commanded them to do X
      1. Therefore doing X is a morally good act.
        ::因此做X是道德上好的行为。
      2. X can be any act at all .
        ::X可以是任何行为。
      3. Any act at all can be good if  god commands it.
        ::如果上帝下令 任何行动都可能是好的

      ::人们声称上帝命令他们做X, 所以做X是道德上好的行为。X可以是任何行为。如果上帝命令,任何行为都是好的。
    2. In Divine Command  Theory there is no good  or bad  by itself at all. There is only what  God commands
      1. G od commands= good
        ::上帝命令 良好
      2. God forbids=bad
        ::愿上帝不禁坏
      3. G od gives a New Command , then N ew Command = good.
        ::上帝给予新的命令, 然后新的命令是好的。

      ::在神圣的命令中,绝无善恶,真主只命令真主行善。真主严禁真主作恶,真主只以新的命令,然后以新的命令为善。

    No one who accepts Divine Command  Theory can question the commands of the deity or make a statement such as "I do not believe God would command the things you stated here at all." because a person who accepts the Divine Command  Theory accepts no act  as being good  or bad except according to what the deity commands.
    ::任何接受神令理论的人,都不能质疑神的旨意,也不能发表这样的话: "我不信上帝会命令你在这里所说的一切"。 因为接受神令理论的人,除神命外,不得以善恶为行为。

    According to Divine Command  Theory a ll that matters is that the "God" commands it:
    ::根据神令的理论 所有重要的是 "上帝"命令它:

    • rape can be good
      ::强奸可以是好的
    • child molesting can be good
      ::儿童猥亵可以是件好事
    • lies can be good
      ::谎言可以是好的
    • theft can be good
      ::偷盗是件好事
    • slaughter of thousands of innocent people can be good
      ::屠杀成千上万无辜人民是好事

    Scriptures can record what some people at some time thought god commanded them to do. Some people can follow what is written in those scriptures. That is not Divine Command  Theory .  Why not?  Because for those who believe in a deity or a god then god  lives forever. God is alive. God keeps issuing commands .
    ::信奉天经的人,曾以为真主曾命令他们行善,他们却能记录他们的行为。有的人,能遵守天经中记载的经典。这不是《古兰经》的律例。怎么不是《古兰经》的律例。信仰神灵或神灵者,真主将永居其中。真主是全能的。真主是全能的,是全能的。

    People hear the Divine Command  in 1205 and 1776 and 1848 and on May 10, 2003 and on December 23, 2005, March 19 in 2017, and so on. They follow it thinking the command makes the act that is commanded the morally correct thing to do. Here are some recent cases of Divine Commands.
    ::人们在1205年、1776年、1848年、2003年5月10日、2005年12月23日、2017年3月19日、2017年12月19日等时间听到神圣司令部的呼声。他们随后认为,司令部命令的行为在道德上是正确的。这里是神司令部最近的一些案例。

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    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers Goal
    ::EPISD 信息化解决问题者目标

    Divine Command Theory  has so many problems that there are very few people on earth that use it and they tend to be fanatics, and mentally unstable people. No organized religion actually supports Divine Command Theory  because of all the problems with it and the threat it poses to organized religions. Judaism and Christianity and Islam support Natural Law  and not Divine Command .
    ::神圣指挥理论有如此多的问题,以至于地球上很少有人使用它,而且他们往往是狂热分子,精神不稳定的人。 没有任何有组织的宗教实际上支持神圣指挥理论,因为它涉及所有问题,对有组织的宗教构成威胁。 犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教支持自然法,而不是神教。

    Problems:
    ::问题:

    1. Is there a God or any deity?
      ::有神灵吗?还是有神灵呢?
    2. Who knows what the commands of the deity are? Can anyone claim to have heard the command and respond to it? .
      ::有谁知道神的命令是什么?有谁能声称听到命令并作出反应?
    3. The commands may need to be interpreted, but by whom?
      ::命令可能需要由谁来解释,但由谁来解释?
    4. If there are a few who claim to be designated by the deity or who are designated by some group to be the official recipients of the divine commands are humans prepared to follow the commands of these designated recipients as if they were the commands of the deity?
      ::如果有少数人声称被神指定,或被某个团体指定为神圣命令的正式接受者,那么人类是否愿意像神的命令一样服从这些指定接受者的命令?
    5. If the deity commands or the designated recipients of the deity's commands do command that every human sacrifice the second born child on its third birthday on an altar would that make human sacrifice a morally good  act?
      ::如果神的旨意或神之命令的指定接受者确实命令每个人牺牲第二个在圣坛上出生的三岁生日的第二个孩子,使人类牺牲成为道德上良好的行为?

    So there are several and severe problems with the Divine Command Theory. They account for the reasons why no major organized religion would use this theory as the basis for morality.
    ::因此,神令理论存在若干严重的问题。 原因就在于没有大型有组织的宗教会利用这一理论作为道德基础。

    There is another theory that in one of its forms involves belief in the existence of a deity, God.  It is the ethical principle employed by the major religious traditions of the West: Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
    ::还有一个理论认为,有一种形式是信仰神神的存在,这是西方主要宗教传统:犹太教、基督教和伊斯兰教采用的伦理原则。

    Natural Law Theory 
    ::自然法理论

    With this theory actions in conformity and support of natural laws are morally correct. 
    ::这种理论行动符合并支持自然法,在道义上是正确的。

      A Short Summary of Natural Law Theory
    ::《自然法理论简要摘要》

     

    What is consistent with the Natural Law Is ri ght and what Is not in keeping with the Natural Law is wrong.  This is not what is natural is morally correct and what is unnatural is morally wrong.  The focus is on the natural laws and not simply natural acts .
    ::符合《自然法》的事物是正确的,不符合《自然法》的事物是错误的。 这不是自然的事物在道德上是正确的,非自然的事物在道德上是错误的。 重点是自然法,而不仅仅是自然行为。

    In this view humans have reasoning and the Laws of Nature are discernable by human reason. Thus, humans are morally obliged to use their reasoning to discern what the laws are and then to act in  in conformity with them.
    ::在这种观点中,人类有推理,自然法则因人的理由是可以辨别的,因此,人类在道义上有义务利用推理来辨别法律是什么,然后按照法律行事。

    Humans have a natural drive to eat, drink, sleep and procreate . These actions are in accord with a natural law for species to survive and procreate. Thus activities in conformity with such a law are morally good.  Activities that work against that law are morally wrong.  As an example consider that to eat too much or too little and place life in jeopardy is morally wrong.  NLT derives from a rational deduction of what would be consistent with what appear to reason to be the laws of nature governing human behavior. Humans are animals and as such are governed by certain natural drives and instincts, e.g., to eat, drink, sleep, procreate, survive.  Thus, there would be according to NLT a right  to life and health needed for life.  Thus, any action that harms human life and health would be morally incorrect, i.e., morally wrong.  An operation that harms human flesh is morally correct if it is intended to produce benefits such as removing threats to life (cancer), correcting malfunctioning organs etc... Medicine and surgery intended to further health and life are morally good.
    ::人类有自然的饮食、饮酒、睡眠和生育的动力。这些行动符合自然法则,让物种生存和生育。因此,符合自然法则的活动在道德上是好的。违反法律的活动在道德上是错误的。作为例子,认为吃太多或太少,使生命处于危险之中,在道德上是错误的。NLT来自合理推算与自然法则一致的人类行为。人类是动物,因此受某些自然法则和本能的制约,例如,饮食、睡眠、生育、生存。因此,根据NLT,生命和健康的权利是必需的。因此,任何损害人的生命和健康的行动在道德上是不正确的,也就是说,道德上是错误的。伤害人类肉体的行动如果意在产生利益,例如消除对生命的威胁(癌症)、纠正器官失灵等,从道德上讲是正确的。医学和手术是为了增进健康和生命。

    This theory has two major variations on it. 
    ::这一理论有两大不同之处。

    1. For the theists there is a deity that created all of nature and created the laws as well and so obedience to those laws and the supplement to those laws provided by the deity is the morally correct thing to do.  
      ::对于神论者来说,有神灵创造了所有自然,也创造了法律,因此服从这些法律,神所提供法律的补充在道义上是正确的。
    2. For atheists there is still the belief that humans have reasoning ability and with it the laws of nature are discernable .  For atheists who accept this approach to act in keeping with the laws of nature is the morally correct thing to do.
      ::对于无神论者来说,人们仍然相信人类有推理能力,自然法则是可以辨别的。 对于接受这一方法的无神论者来说,按照自然法则行事在道德上是正确的。

    What are the laws of nature that provide guidance for human actions?  These would include: the law of survival, the natural action for living things to maintain themselves and to reproduce, etc. But it is a major problem for this theory to determine what exactly those laws are and how they apply to human circumstances.
    ::哪些自然法则为人类行动提供了指导?这些自然法则包括生存法则、生存法则、维持生命和繁殖的自然行为等等。 但这一理论的主要问题是如何确定那些法律的确切内容以及它们如何适用于人类情况。

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    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers Goal
    ::EPISD 信息化解决问题者目标

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    The Doctrine of Double Effect
    ::双重效果理论

     

    Case Study: Homosexuality
    ::案例研究:同性恋

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    EPISD Critical Knowledge and Creative Thinkers Goal
    ::EPISD 关键知识和创意思想者目标

    Natural Law Theory
    ::自然法理论

    Under the Natural Law Theory, if two people of the same sex interacting to produce orgasms this would be morally good or bad depending on whether or not such actions are in accordance with natural laws or not.
    ::根据《自然法理论》,如果两个同性的人为产生高潮而互动,这在道德上是好的还是坏的,取决于这种行为是否符合自然法则。

    Atheistic Natural Law Theory
    ::无神论自然法理论

    Under Atheistic Natural Law Theory, if there are species on earth in which members of the same sex physically interact to produce physical pleasure, then homosexual couplings among humans would be morally good. The purpose of orgasms would be more than to produce offspring.
    ::根据无神论自然法理论,如果地球上有同性成员进行身体互动以产生身体快乐的物种,那么人类之间的同性恋结合在道德上是好的。 高潮的目的将不仅仅是产生后代。

    Problem
    ::问题

    The physical record may not be all that clear and open to interpretation. There is evidence of same sex couplings in species other than human. How many cases or species are needed to conclude that such behavior is natural among mammals and fulfilling a basic physical drive in a non-harmful manner to the species is what is debatable ?
    ::物理记录可能并不完全清楚,而且可以解释。有证据表明,人类以外物种的性别是相同的。需要多少个案例或物种来得出结论,认为这种行为在哺乳动物中是自然的,并且以对物种无害的方式提供基本的物理驱动,这是值得商榷的吗?

      Theistic Natural Law Theory
    ::自然法理论

    1. God made Nature.
      ::上帝创造了大自然。
    2. God made the Natural Laws.
      ::上帝创造了自然法则
    3. God made humans.
      ::上帝创造了人类
    4. God gave humans reason by which they are to learn of the natural laws.
      ::真主使人类知道自己生前的常道。
    5. God also provides revelation concerning god's will and wishes.
      ::真主也降示关于真主的意志和愿望的启示。

    In the scriptures there are passages dealing with human matters and they are interpreted to have been given as a guide for the moral life. So in addition to the physical universe which is provided for the study of humans there is also the word of god.
    ::圣经中有几节论述人的事务,它们被解释为是道德生活的指南。因此,除了用于研究人类的物理宇宙外,还有神的话语。

    Case Study: Onan
    ::案例研究:Onan

    There is a passage in the bible where Onan is condemned because he did not go into the tent of his dead brother's wife and have sex with her so as to produce more children. (See two accounts below). At that time it was the custom in the tribe that when a man died his brother would be responsible for his wife and take her as another wife in order to continue the tribe. Onan went into the tent had sex with the dead brother's wife but pulled out of her and spilled his semen on the ground. He was condemned for doing so.
    ::《圣经》中有一段文字,其中谴责奥南,因为他没有进入他死去的弟弟的妻子的帐篷,与她发生性关系,以便生更多的孩子。 (见下文两个说明)当时,部落的习俗是,当一个男人去世时,他的兄弟将对其妻子负责,并把她当作另一个妻子,以便延续部落。奥南进入帐篷时,他与他死去的兄弟的妻子发生性关系,但把她拉出来,把精液洒在地上。他因此被定罪。

       The Sin of Onan Genesis 38:6-9
    ::奥南创世之罪 38:6-9

    This passage describes how Tamar's first husband Er was killed by God because he was wicked. Under ancient Jewish tradition, Er's brother Onan was required to marry and engage in sexual intercourse with Tamar. Widows were not asked whether they wanted to remarry. In many cases, the woman would have experienced the sexual activity as a form of rape -- something required by tribal tradition which they had to endure. Similarly, nobody consulted the widow's brother-in-law about his wishes in the matter.
    ::这个段落描述了Tamar的第一任丈夫Er是如何被上帝杀死的,因为他是邪恶的。根据古犹太传统,Er的兄弟Onan必须结婚和与Tamar发生性关系。没有询问寡妇是否愿意再婚。在许多情况下,妇女会经历性活动,这是她们必须忍受的部落传统所要求的一种强奸形式。同样,没有人向寡妇的姐夫咨询他在这个问题上的愿望。

    Their first son would be attributed to Er. Because any offspring would not be considered his child, Onan decided to use a common and relatively ineffective contraceptive technique to prevent conception. He employed "coitus interruptus". That is, he disengaged from Tamar just before he ejaculated, and "spilled his semen on the ground." (NIV) God was displeased at this action and killed Onan also -- presumably because he refused to follow Jewish tradition.
    ::因为任何后代都不会被视为他的孩子,奥南决定使用一种普通的、相对无效的避孕技术来防止受孕。他使用了“技术中断 ” 。 也就是说,在射精前,他脱离了塔玛,“在地面上喷洒了精液 ” ( NIV)上帝对这次行动不满,杀害了奥南,大概是因为他拒绝遵循犹太传统。

    This passage was used until recent decades by some Christian groups who maintained that Onan's sin was actually masturbation. The term "Onanism" was coined as a synonym of masturbation. This interpretation is no longer in common use.
    ::近几十年来,一些基督教团体一直使用这一段落,认为奥南的罪实际上是自慰的。 “欧南主义”一词被称作手淫的同义词。 这种解释已不再被常用。

       Alternate Account of Onan's Story
    ::奥南故事的候补账户

    Onan was the middle of the three children of Judah, son of Jacob and father of the tribe which eventually produced both Kind David and Jesus. His older brother died without producing an heir.  In those days, it was customary for the younger brother to take his deceased brother's wife and provide that brother with an offspring. So, Judah, Onan's father, ordered him to do such.
    ::奥南 是 猶大 的 三 个孩子 中 的 、 雅各 的 儿子 、 雅各 的 父亲 、 部落 的 父 、 最终 既 生 了 基甸 、 也 生 了 基甸 . 他 的 哥哥 死 了 、 却没有 生 继承人 、 就 死 了 . 那日 、 弟兄 通常 娶 亡 兄 的 妻 、 供 他 的 子孙 。 於是 奥南 的 父 猶大 命令 他 这样做

    According to the account, Onan realized that his biological son, produced in this manner, would not be considered his own. If Onan provided his older dead brother with a son, that child would inherit both the seat of chief of the tribe as well as the oldest portion of the estate. It meant that Onan would be inferior to his own biological child. It also meant that Onan would lose "financially."
    ::奥南意识到,以这种方式产生的亲生儿子不会被视为他自己的儿子。 如果奥南给他死去的哥哥一个儿子,那孩子将继承部落首领的位子和遗产中最古老的部分。这意味着奥南将比自己的亲生孩子低。这也意味着奥南将“在财政上失去 ” 。

    The laws of inheritance in those days required that the older brother receive a double portion. This meant that if Onan provided his brother with an heir, Judah's holdings would be divided four ways, with two fourths (or one half) going to this child while Onan would only receive one fourth. However, if Onan retained his status as oldest surviving son, the inheritance would be divided three ways, with Onan receiving two of those thirds or about one and a half times more.
    ::当时的继承法要求哥哥获得双份遗产,这意味着如果奥南向他的兄弟提供继承人,犹大的财产将分成四种方式,四分之二(或一半)交给这个孩子,而奥南只得到四分之一。然而,如果奥南保留他作为最年长的幸存儿子的地位,遗产将分三分,奥南得到三分之二或大约三分之一半以上。

    According to the scriptural account, Onan insured his failure by practicing the most ancient form of birth control known, premature withdrawal. For this, God struck him dead.
    ::根据剧本上的说法,奥南通过实施已知的最古老的节育方式,早产,为他的失败投保。为此,上帝打死了他。

    The account says that Tamar was the name of the wife and her dead husband committed a sin so grave that God killed him, although it doesn't specify the sin. Now, her husband's younger brother commits a sin, with her, and he is struck down by God. This man sent to her to provide her dead husband with an heir, has sexual relations with her. He pulls out before ejaculation, spills his seed on the ground and dies on the spot.
    ::账户上说,Tamar是妻子的名字,她死去的丈夫的名字是Tamar,她丈夫的罪过非常严重,以致于真主杀死了他,尽管那罪过并不具体。现在,她丈夫的弟弟对她犯了罪,他被真主击倒。这个男人被派去教化她,要把她的丈夫的继承人交给她,他与她有性关系。他在射精之前,抽出精液,把种子撒在地上,当场死亡。

    Problem
    ::问题

    1. Was Onan condemned for entering into sex for a purpose other than having children? If so then all sexual acts other than intercourse between a man and a woman who are married and preparing to have children would be immoral. These acts would include: Premarital sex, extra marital sex, masturbation, homosexuality, oral sex, anal sex, use of birth control.
      ::奥南是否因为有子女以外的目的从事性行为而被判有罪?如果是的话,除已婚和准备生育的男女性交以外的所有性行为都是不道德的,这些行为包括:婚前性行为、婚外性行为、手淫、同性恋、口交、肛交、节育。
    2. Was Onan condemned for not being willing to father children by his dead brother's wife? If so, then sexual acts entered into for a purpose other than procreation would be morally acceptable.
      ::奥南是否因为不愿生儿育女而被他死去的兄弟的妻子谴责? 如果是这样的话,那么为了生育以外的目的进行的性行为在道德上是可以接受的。

    There are many people who take each of these possible interpretations of the passage.
    ::许多人对通道的每一个可能的解释都持这种看法。

    Read
    ::已读

    lesson content

    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers Goal
    ::EPISD 信息化解决问题者目标

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    Problems for the Natural Law Theory
    ::自然法问题理论

    One of the difficulties for natural law theory is that people have interpreted nature differently.
    ::自然法理论的一个困难是人们对自然的诠释不同。

    1. Natural Law Theory seems to assert that the moral law of human nature is knowable by natural human reason.
      ::自然法理论似乎断言,人类自然的道德法则是人类自然理性所了解的。


      ::自然法理论似乎断言,人类自然的道德法则是人类自然理性所了解的。

    2. How do we determine the essential or morally praiseworthy traits of human nature? Traditional Natural Law Theory has picked out very positive traits, such as "the desire to know the truth, to choose the good, and to develop as healthy mature human beings.” But some philosophers, such as Hobbes, have found human beings to be essentially selfish. It is questionable that behavior in accordance with human nature is morally right and behavior not in accord with human nature is morally wrong.  For instance, if it turns out that human beings (at least the males) are naturally aggressive, should we infer that war and fighting are morally right?
      ::我们如何确定人性的基本特征或道德上值得称道的特征?传统自然法理论已经挑选出非常积极的特征,比如“了解真理、选择善事、发展成为健康的成熟人的愿望 ” 。 但是,一些哲学家,如霍布斯,发现人类本质上是自私的。 人类本性的行为在道德上是正确的,与人本性不符的行为在道德上是错误的,这是值得怀疑的。 比如,如果人类(至少是男性)自然具有侵略性,我们是否应该推断战争和战斗在道德上是正确的?


      ::我们如何确定人性的基本特征或道德上值得称道的特征?传统自然法理论已经挑选出非常积极的特征,比如“了解真理、选择善事、发展成为健康的成熟人的愿望 ” 。 但是,一些哲学家,如霍布斯,发现人类本质上是自私的。 人类本性的行为在道德上是正确的,与人本性不符的行为在道德上是错误的,这是值得怀疑的。 比如,如果人类(至少是男性)自然具有侵略性,我们是否应该推断战争和战斗在道德上是正确的?

    3. Even if we have certain natural propensities, are we justified in claiming that those propensities or tendencies should be developed? On what grounds do we justify, for example, that we ought to choose the good?
      ::即使我们有某些自然倾向,我们是否有理由声称这些倾向或趋势应该发展?我们以什么理由来证明,例如,我们应该选择好东西?


      ::即使我们有某些自然倾向,我们是否有理由声称这些倾向或趋势应该发展?我们以什么理由来证明,例如,我们应该选择好东西?

    4. For Aquinas, the reason why nature had the order it did was because God had put it there. Other thinkers, such as Aristotle, did not believe that this order was divinely inspired. Does this alleged natural moral order require that we believe that there is a God that has produced this natural moral order?   Evolutionary Theory has challenged much of the basis of thinking that there is a moral natural order, since on evolutionary theory species has developed the way they have out of survival needs.
      ::对阿奎纳斯来说,自然之所以有秩序,是因为上帝把自然秩序放在那里。 亚里士多德等其他思想家并不认为这个秩序是神圣的。 这个所谓的自然道德秩序是否要求我们相信有一个上帝创造了这个自然的道德秩序?进化论理论质疑了许多认为有道德的自然秩序的基础,因为在进化理论上,物种已经发展出他们的生存需要。


      ::对阿奎纳斯来说,自然之所以有秩序,是因为上帝把自然秩序放在那里。 亚里士多德等其他思想家并不认为这个秩序是神圣的。 这个所谓的自然道德秩序是否要求我们相信有一个上帝创造了这个自然的道德秩序?进化论理论质疑了许多认为有道德的自然秩序的基础,因为在进化理论上,物种已经发展出他们的生存需要。
    5. It is doubtful that one can infer moral principles forbidding adultery, rape, homosexuality, and so forth, either from biological facts about human nature or from facts about the inherent nature of Homo sapiens.
      ::令人怀疑的是,从人性的生物事实或人性人性固有的事实中,是否可以推断出禁止通奸、强奸、同性恋等的道德原则。

    6. Critics of N atural Law Theory say that it is doubtful, however, that the inherent nature of Homo sapiens establishes laws of behavior for human beings in the same way as it may establish laws of behavior for cats, lions, and polar bears. It is especially difficult because so much of human behavior is shaped by the environment, that is, by deliberate and non-deliberate conditioning, training, and education.
      ::批评自然法理论的人说,但令人怀疑的是,人猿的固有性质是否确立了人类行为法则,就像它为猫、狮子和北极熊的行为法则一样。 尤其困难的是,人类行为如此之多是由环境形成的,也就是通过有意和非刻意的调节、培训和教育。


      ::批评自然法理论的人说,但令人怀疑的是,人猿的固有性质是否确立了人类行为法则,就像它为猫、狮子和北极熊的行为法则一样。 尤其困难的是,人类行为如此之多是由环境形成的,也就是通过有意和非刻意的调节、培训和教育。

    7. Two philosophers (Aquinas and Aristotle) integral to the theory have different views about God’s role in nature, which confuses the issue, especially when trying to decipher if the theory relies on the existence of God.
      ::这个理论所固有的两个哲学家(阿基纳斯和亚里士多德)对上帝在自然中的作用有不同的看法,这混淆了问题,特别是如果理论依赖于上帝的存在,那么在试图破解这个理论时。


      ::这个理论所固有的两个哲学家(阿基纳斯和亚里士多德)对上帝在自然中的作用有不同的看法,这混淆了问题,特别是如果理论依赖于上帝的存在,那么在试图破解这个理论时。
    8. The intrinsic nature of humans as it pertains to establishing laws of behavior may not be the same for animals, which presents difficulties within the theory.
      ::人类在确定行为法则方面的内在性质可能与动物不同,这在理论中造成了困难。

    9. Human behavior may be solely reliant upon the environment that one is exposed to, which includes social classes, education and upbringing, this opposes the theory
      ::人类的行为可能完全依赖于人们所接触的环境,包括社会阶层、教育和培养,这与理论相悖。


      ::人类的行为可能完全依赖于人们所接触的环境,包括社会阶层、教育和培养,这与理论相悖。

    Crash Course: Natural Law Theory
    ::坠机课程:自然法理论

     

      Philosophy Applications
    ::哲学应用

    lesson content

    EPISD Critical Knowledge and Creative Thinkers Goal
    ::EPISD 关键知识和创意思想者目标

    Vocabulary
    ::词汇表

    lesson content

    EPISD Effective Bilingual Education Goal
    ::EPISD 有效双语教育目标