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  • 分类要求和公正作为公平

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    Kant's Categorical Imperative
    ::康德的分类要求

    For Kant the basis for a Theory of the Good lies in the intention or the will . Those acts are morally praiseworthy that are done out of a sense of duty rather than for the consequences that are expected, particularly the consequences to self. The only thing good  about the act is the will, the good will . That will is to do our duty .  What is our duty?  It is our duty to act in such a manner that we would want everyone else to act in a similar manner in similar circumstances towards all other people. Kant expressed this as the Categorical Imperative .
    ::对于Kant来说,善论的基础在于意图或意志。这些行为在道义上是值得称道的,是出于责任感,而不是出于预期的后果,特别是自我的后果。行为的唯一好处是意愿,善意。这就是履行我们的职责。我们的义务是什么?我们有义务以这样一种方式行事,即我们希望其他人以类似的方式对待所有其他人。Kant说这是“分类规则”。

    Act according to the maxim that you would wish all other rational people to follow, as if it were a universal law .  For Kant the good  involves the Principle of Universalizability.   Kant argues that there can be four formulations of this principle:
    ::依据你希望所有其他理性的人都遵循的格言行事,好象它是普遍法一样。

    1. The Formula of the Law of Nature: "Act as if the maxim of your action were to become through your will a universal law of nature."
      ::自然法则的公式 : “你的行为之大法则 仿佛要通过你的意志 成为自然法则的普遍法则一样。”
    2. The Formula of the End Itself : "Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end."
      ::结束的公式: “行动的方式总是使你对待人性, 无论是在你自己的身上,还是他人的身上, 绝不只是作为手段, 但总是同时作为目的。”
    3. The Formula of Autonomy : "So act that your will can regard itself at the same time as making universal law through its maxims."
      ::自治的公式:“你的行为,你的意愿可以 认为自己是同时 制定普遍的法律 通过它的格言。”
    4. The Formula of the Kingdom of Ends : "So act as if you were through your maxims a law-making member of a kingdom of ends."
      ::末日之国的法度是:你应当谨守你的法度,你当遵守你的法度;你当遵守你的法度,好象你是一个末日之国的法度者。

    Never treat a person as a means to an end. Persons are always ends in themselves. We must never use or exploit anyone for whatever purpose. The Categorical Imperative is not  the Golden Rule
    ::永远不要把人当作达到目的的手段,人总是自己的目的,我们绝不能为任何目的利用或剥削任何人。

    Kant in his Critique of Practical Reason wanted to find a basis for ethics that would be based on reason and not on a faith in a God or in some cold calculation of utility that might permit people to be used for the benefit of the majority. Kant thought carefully about what it is that all humans would find reasonable as a guide for human conduct.  People think it wrong to kill, lie, steal, and break promises. Why is this so? Kant arrives at the idea that humans think these acts wrong because they cannot will that others would do these things because it would mean the end of civilized life, perhaps even the life of the actor contemplating the right way to behave. One cannot will that people lie all the time, for that would mean the end to human communications if we could not trust what was said to be true most, if not all, of the time.  Kant thought that there would be perfect and imperfect duties.
    ::肯特在其《实用理性的精髓》中想找到一个道德基础,该道德基础将基于理性,而不是基于对上帝的信仰,或者基于某种冷酷的效用计算,允许人们被利用为大多数人的利益。康特仔细思考,什么是所有人都会认为合理的作为人类行为的指南。人们认为杀人、撒谎、偷盗和违背诺言是错误的。为什么会这样呢?康特认为,人类认为这些行为是错误的,因为他们不会愿意让其他人做这些事情,因为这将意味着文明生活的终结,也许甚至意味着演员思考正确行为方式的生命。人们不可能永远相信人们所说的最真实的话,如果不是全部的话,那将意味着人类交流的终结。康特认为,责任是完美和不完善的。

    Perfect Duties   are that which we are all obliged to do all of the time.  
    ::完美的职责是我们所有人都有义务 做所有的时间。

    Such as:
    ::例如:

    • no killing
      ::杀 不杀 不杀 不杀
    • no physically harming others
      ::不得对他人造成身体伤害
    • no lies
      ::没有谎言,没有谎言
    • no theft
      ::无盗窃
    • no breaking promises
      ::没有违背承诺的承诺

    Imperfect Duties are those which we should do as often as possible but cannot be expected to do always.
    ::不尽职责是我们应该尽可能经常做的事情,但不能指望总是这样做。

    Such as:       
    ::例如:

    • be charitable
      ::国 国 国 国 国 国
    • loving
      ::爱爱
    • kind
      ::型 型 型
    • patient
      ::病人

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    ::已读

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    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers Goal
    ::EPISD 信息化解决问题者目标

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    The Golden Rule
    ::黄金规则

    The same essential golden rule has been taught by all the major religions (and philosophies) of the world going back approximately 3500 years. 
    ::世界所有主要宗教(和哲学)在大约3500年前就教授过同样的基本黄金规则。

    The Golden Rule Around the World
    ::全世界金金规则

    Hinduism 13 th Century BCE
    ::印度教13世纪BCE

    Do not to others what you do not wish done to yourself...
    ::不要对别人做你不想对自己做的事...

    --This is the whole Dharma, heed it well.
    ::这就是整个达摩,好好留意它

    Zoroastrianism 12 th Century BCE
    ::十二世纪BCE 十二世纪的Zoroastrianism 十二世纪BCE

    Human nature is good only when it does not do unto another whatever is not good for its own self.
    ::只有当人类不对他人做对自己不利的事时,人类的本性才是好的。

     

    Buddhism  6thCentury BCE
    ::佛教六世宗派BCE

    Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful.
    ::不致于伤害别人,而使你自认为是受伤害的。

    Judaism 6 th Century BCE
    ::犹太教6世纪BCE

    "You shall not take vengeance or bear a grudge against your kinsfolk. Love your neighbor as yourself: I am the LORD". Leviticus 19:18
    ::你 不 可 向 你 的 亲戚 报仇 、 或 怨恨 你 的 亲戚 、 也 不 可 报仇 、 也 不 可 怨恨 你 的 亲戚 . 爱 你 的 鄰舍 、 如 爱 你 的 自己 . 我 是 耶和華 。 19: 18

    "That which is hateful to you, do not do to your fellow. That is the whole Torah; the rest is the explanation; go and learn it". ---Hillel in Talmud, Shabbat 31a
    ::你们所憎恨的,你们不要伤害你们的朋友,那是整部《讨拉特》,其余的就是解释;你们去学学吧!————在塔木德的希勒,安息日31a。

    Janism 6 th Century BCE
    ::6世纪和平、和平、和平、和平、和平、和平

    In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, regard all creatures as you would regard your own self.
    ::在幸福和痛苦中,在欢乐和悲伤中, 对所有生物都像对待你自己一样看待自己。

    Christianity 1 st Century CE
    ::基督教第一世纪 CE

    In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, regard all creatures as you would regard your own self.
    ::在幸福和痛苦中,在欢乐和悲伤中, 对所有生物都像对待你自己一样看待自己。

     

     

    Confucianism 6 th Century BCE
    ::儒教 6世纪BCE

    Do not do to others what you do not want done to yourself.  Confucius, Analects
    ::不要对别人做你不想对自己做的事 孔子,分析师

    Islam 7 th Century CE
    ::伊斯兰七世纪 CE

    No one of you is a believer until you desire for another that which you desire for yourself.
    ::你们中没有一个信仰的,直到你们欲得自己所欲得的。

    The Sunnah (from the Hadith),
    ::那是从哈迪斯发出的,

     

    Sikhism 15 th Century CE
    ::锡克教15世纪

    Be not estranged from another for, in every heart, Pervades the Lord.
    ::你们不要离别别人,因为每个灵魂中,都有主。

    Sri Guru Granth Sahib, in Singh
    ::斯里鲁·格兰特·萨希布(Sriuru Granth Sahib),在辛格

    Bahá'í 19 th Century CE
    ::Bahá'í 19世纪 CE

    Ascribe not to any soul that which thou wouldst not have ascribed to thee, and say not that which thou doest not. This is my command unto thee, do thou observe it.
    ::不得以你所未奉的(命令)去教化任何人,也不要以你所未奉的(命令)去教化任何人。你不要妄言自己所未奉的(命令),你不要妄言自己所未奉的(命令)去教化别人。这是我对你的命令,你应当遵守它。

    For Additional Reference:
    ::另请参考:

    Kant's improvement on the golden rule, the Categorical Imperative:
    ::康德在黄金法则上的改进, 分类要求:

    • Act as you would want all other people to act towards all other people.
      ::就像你希望其他人 对所有其他人采取行动一样
    • Act according to the maxim that you would wish all other rational people to follow, as if it were a universal law. 
      ::按照你希望所有其他理性的人都遵循的格言行事,仿佛它是一部普遍的法律。

    The difference is this. 
    ::区别在于这一点。

    • With the Golden rule a masochist or a sadist would be justified in causing or receiving pain. 
      ::有了金色规则 受虐者或虐待者 有理由造成或忍受痛苦
    • This is not what the Kantian Principle would support.  The Golden Rule, as Kant well knew, is a deeply misguided ethical principle. 
      ::这不是康德原则所支持的。 正如康德所熟知的,黄金规则是一条深深误导的道德原则。

    P roblems with Kant's Theory  
    ::Kant 理论问题

    lesson content

    EPISD Critical Knowledge and Creative Thinkers Goal
    ::EPISD 关键知识和创意思想者目标

    1. The theory applies only to rational agents. It would not apply to non-humans or to humans who are not rational, e.g., humans with brain malfunctioning , illness or persistent vegetative coma .
      ::理论只适用于理性剂,不适用于非人类或不理性的人类,例如脑部机能失常、疾病或植物持续昏迷的人类。
    2. The theory cannot resolve conflicts between duties:
      1. between two perfect duties
        ::在两个完美任务之间
      2. between a perfect duty and an imperfect duty
        ::在完美义务与不完美义务之间

      ::理论无法解决责任之间的冲突:完美义务与不完美义务之间的两个完美义务

    How would a person resolve a conflict between two perfect duties such as never tell a lie and avoid harming someone? What if telling the truth were to harm someone?
    ::一个人如何解决两种完美职责之间的冲突,比如永不说谎,避免伤害他人? 如果说实话会伤害他人呢?

    How would you resolve the conflict between the perfect duty, say to keep a promise to pick your friend up with your car at a certain time, and an imperfect duty, say to stop on the way to pick up your friend in order to give CPR to someone, a stranger, and save that stranger’s life?
    ::如何解决完美责任、承诺在某个时候用车接你朋友、不完善责任之间的冲突, 如何在路上停止接你朋友, 以便让陌生人得到心肺复苏, 并拯救陌生人的生命?

    A clever person could phrase the maxim to be universalized in such a manner as to permit almost anything. By placing qualifiers on the maxim or peculiar definitions on terms a clever actor could satisfy the categorical imperative and yet be acting in a manner otherwise not consistent with it.
    ::聪明人可以用允许几乎任何东西的方式来形容普及的格言。 通过在格言或对聪明人术语的特殊定义上设置限定词,聪明人可以满足绝对要求,但行为方式却与它不符。

    Crash Course Philosophy: Kant and the Categorical Imperative
    ::崩溃课程哲学:康德和分类要求

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    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers Goal
    ::EPISD 信息化解决问题者目标

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    Justice As Fairness
    ::公正公正

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    The first significant and unique contribution to the study of Ethics by an American has been that of John Rawls, a Professor of Philosophy at Harvard University.  He developed a Theory of the G ood  as Justice and Justice conceived as Fairness .  His theory was developed to assist a society in ordering its affairs. His ideas have influenced many lawmakers and Supreme Court decisions in the United States. Among many examples are the laws for providing equal access to opportunities for minorities and the disabled.
    ::一位美国人对伦理学研究的第一个重要和独特的贡献是哈佛大学哲学教授约翰·罗尔斯,他发展了“正义与正义如正义的理论,认为公正是公平”,他的理论是用来帮助一个社会组织自己的事务,他的思想影响了美国许多立法者和最高法院的裁决,许多例子包括向少数民族和残疾人提供平等机会的法律。

    Rawls wants to use reasoning which all humans have to arrive at the P rinciple of the Good.  He is similar to Kant in this regard. He wants to avoid the problems with Kant's theory and he wants to avoid providing any justification for morally outrageous actions which could be justified on utilitarian principles.  He wants to avoid the disadvantages of those approaches.  His approach places humans in a position wherein they view the moral dilemma or problem without knowing who they are in the situation. What would rational beings decide was best in situations where not all the humans involved are equal in physical conditions, social or economic circumstance?  Rawls believes that humans would resolve the conflict or problem in such a way that whoever was worst off would be not as bad off as they otherwise might be because the person making the decision does not know whether they are going to be in the position of the worst off.
    ::罗尔斯希望使用所有人类都必须达到善原则的推理。他在这方面与康德相似。他想避免坎特理论的问题,他也想避免为基于功利主义原则的道德残暴行为提供任何理由。他想避免这些方法的不利之处。他的做法将人置于一种地位,在他们看待道德困境或问题时,不知道他们处于何种处境。在并非所有人都在物质条件、社会或经济状况中平等的情况下,理性人会决定什么是最好的?罗尔斯认为,人类解决冲突或问题的方式可以使最坏的人不会像其他人那样坏,因为做决定的人不知道他们是否会处于最坏的境地。

    The Maximum-Minimum Principle is the Principle of the G ood
    ::最大至最低原则是良好原则

    • M aximize Liberty (opportunities)
      ::最大限度实现自由(机会)
    • M inimize Inequalities (differences, disadvantages)
      ::尽量减少不平等(差异、劣势)

    Rawls proposes the following two Principles of Justice:
    ::Rawls提出以下两项司法原则:

    1. Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all.
      ::人人有权享受与人人享有类似自由制度相符的最广泛的平等基本自由制度。
    2. Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both:
      1. to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, consistent with the just savings principle, and
        ::符合公正节约原则,使处境最不利者获得最大利益,
      2. attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
        ::附属于在公平机会均等的条件下向所有人开放的办公室和职位。

      ::社会和经济不平等将加以安排,以便两者均能做到:根据公正的储蓄原则,最有利于处境最不利者,并附属于在公平机会均等的条件下向所有人开放的办公室和职位。

      First priority rule:
    ::第一优先规则:

    Rawls proposes these principles, along with the requirement that:
    ::Rawls提出这些原则,同时要求:

    • (1) must be satisfied prior to (2)
      :sad1) 必须在(2)之前满足;(1) 必须在(2)之前满足
    • and (2b) must be satisfied prior to (2a).
      ::和 (2(b) 必须在(2(a)之前满足。
    • Principle (1) and Principle (2b) may also be thought of as principles of distributive justice:
      • (1) to govern the distribution of liberties,
        :sad 一 ) 管理 自由 的 分配 ,
      • and (2b) the distribution of opportunities.
        :sadb) 分配机会。

      ::原则(1)和原则2(b)也可被视为分配公正原则sad1) 规范自由分配,(2) 机会分配。
    • Looking at the P rinciples of J ustice in this way makes all Principles of Justice, P rinciples of Distributive Justice (even P rinciples of Retributive Justice will be included on the basis that they distribute negative goods).
      ::以这种方式审视《司法原则》,使《司法原则》、《分配公正原则》(将基于分配负面货物而纳入《公正原则》、《分配公正原则》(《公平公正原则》)。

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    ::已读

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    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers Goal
    ::EPISD 信息化解决问题者目标

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    The Difference Principle 
    ::差异原则

    The main moral motivation for the Difference Principle is similar to that for strict equality: equal respect for persons. Indeed the Difference Principle materially collapses to a form of strict equality under empirical conditions where differences in income have no effect on the work incentive of people. The overwhelming opinion though is that in the foreseeable future the possibility of earning greater income will bring forth greater productive effort. This will increase the total wealth of the economy and under the Difference Principle, the wealth of the least advantaged. Opinion divides on the size of the inequalities that would, as a matter of empirical fact, be allowed by the Difference Principle, and on how much better off the least advantaged would be under the Difference Principle than under a strict equality principle.
    ::“差异原则”的主要道德动机与严格平等的原则相似:对人的同等尊重。事实上,“差异原则”在收入差异不影响人们工作激励的实际条件下,实际上已经崩溃为某种形式的严格平等。尽管压倒多数的意见是,在可预见的将来,赚取更多收入的可能性将带来更大的生产努力。这将增加经济总财富,根据“差异原则”,增加最不利者的财富。关于不平等规模的意见分歧,作为经验问题,“差异原则”允许这种不平等规模,以及根据“差异原则”,在“差异原则”下,获得最不利待遇比严格平等原则更好。

    Rawls’ principle however gives fairly clear guidance on what type of arguments will count as justifications for inequality.  Rawls is not opposed to the P rinciple of S trict E quality per se, his concern is about the absolute position of the least advantaged group rather than their relative position.  If a system of strict equality maximizes the absolute position of the least advantaged in society, then the Difference Principle advocates strict equality.  If it is possible to raise the position of the least advantaged further by inequality of income and wealth, then the Difference Principle prescribes inequality up to that point where the absolute position of the least advantaged can no longer be raised.
    ::但是,罗尔斯原则却对什么类型的论据可以作为不平等的理由提供了相当明确的指导。 罗尔斯并不反对严格平等原则本身,他所担心的是最不利群体的绝对地位,而不是其相对地位。 如果严格平等制度能最大限度地增加社会中最不利群体的绝对地位,那么“差异原则”则主张严格平等。 如果有可能进一步提高收入和财富不平等给最不利群体带来的不利地位,那么“差异原则”则规定不平等,直到无法再提出最不利群体的绝对地位为止。

     Rawl's Theory of Justice
    ::Rawl的正义理论

    lesson content

    EPISD Critical Knowledge and Creative Thinkers Goal
    ::EPISD 关键知识和创意思想者目标

    1. All theories of human action, social organization, morality rest on idealized or schematic persons and not real individuals. They are not fully scientific in the contemporary sense but they are as close as you can get in morally relevant contexts.  Hence, Rawls deals with representative persons and invests them with several qualities; rationality and reasonable self-interest being two salient features. If that shoe can't fit the reader then there would be no reason to read further as nothing else will be entirely agreeable thereafter.
      ::所有关于人类行动、社会组织、道德的理论都建立在理想化或图案化的人而不是真正的个人之上,在当代意义上,他们并不完全科学,但与道德相关的情况下,他们与你一样接近。 因此,罗尔斯公司与有代表性的人打交道,并赋予他们若干品质;理性和合理的自我利益是两个突出特征。 如果鞋不适合读者,那么就没有理由再进一步阅读,因为此后就没有任何其他东西可以完全接受了。
    2. Rawls does not advocate in any form the equal distribution of resources or their blind redistribution to the disadvantaged. Everyone who has thought the matter through knows that these are socially wasteful distributions. The idea behind Rawls' Difference Principle is to arrange before-hand (behind a veil of ignorance) for a system of distribution of resources which will differentially reward the socially useful so long as it will always also be to the advantage of the least well off. So if we determine that a sanitation engineer is necessary to a well ordered society because his/her activities will be to everyone's advantage we have reasonable grounds to award him/her a disproportionate portion of the available pool of social wealth, and then so on down the line of socially useful pursuits (we want to reward all socially useful activities, discourage the opposite and improve the lot of those who may contribute little or even nothing). This we do theoretically beforehand so we can in the blind determine what a 'just' distribution would be like. Then we are in position to criticize actual distributions that substantially vary from the distribution we selected as 'unjust'.
      ::Rawls不以任何形式鼓吹资源的平等分配或向弱势群体盲目重新分配。 每个人,凡认为此事是社会浪费性分配的人,都知道这些是社会浪费性的。 Rawls的“差异原则”背后的想法是事先安排(在愚昧的面纱后面)资源分配制度,这种分配制度将区别对待对社会有用的人,只要它总是有利于最不富裕的人。所以如果我们确定卫生工程师对于一个井然有序的社会是必要的,因为他/她的活动将有利于每个人,我们有合理的理由给予他/她现有社会财富中不相称的一部分,然后从对社会有用的追求(我们要奖励所有对社会有用的活动,阻止相反的活动,改善那些可能贡献很少甚至什么都不贡献的人的命运 ) 。 我们这样做是理论上的,以便我们能够在盲目中确定“正义”的分配会像什么。 然后我们就可以批评与我们所选择的“不正义”的分配有重大差异的实际分配。

      Example
    ::示例示例示例示例

    1. Person P is attempting to reach a conclusion as to whether or not to do action A or decide which action (B,C or D) would be the morally correct thing to do.
      ::个人P试图就是否采取A行动或决定何种行动(B、C或D)在道义上是正确的行动得出结论。
    2. Well, for Rawls a person would want to consider whether actions A, B, C, or D would support or violate the principle of the moral Good  which for Rawls is the maximum-minimum principle:
      1. Maximize the liberty and freedoms of all involved. 
        ::最大限度地实现所有相关各方的自由和自由。
      2. Do not restrict or deny the freedom and choice of anyone involved in the situation.
        ::不得限制或剥夺任何卷入这种情况的人的自由和选择。
      3. Minimize the harms or the plight of the least well off in the situation or minimize the differences in the welfare of the least well off as compared to those who are most well off. 
        ::尽量减少情况中最不富裕者所受的伤害或困境,或尽量减少与最富裕者相比,最不富裕者的福利差异。
      4. Do not make matters worse for those already most disadvantaged in the situation.
        ::对于那些已经处于最不利境地的人来说,情况不会更糟。
      5. Problems
        ::问题、问题、问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题、 问题

      ::对于罗尔斯来说,一个人想考虑行动A、B、C或D是否会支持或违反道德恩惠原则,对于罗尔斯来说,道德恩惠原则是最大最低限度的原则:最大限度地实现所有参与者的自由和自由;不限制或剥夺任何参与这种情况的人的自由和选择;尽量减少局势中最不富裕者的伤害或困境,或尽量减少最穷者的福利与最富裕者的福利的差别;不要使处境中已经处于最不利地位的人的情况更糟。

    Because there has been such extensive discussion of the Difference Principle in the last 30 years, there have been numerous criticisms of it from the perspective of all five other theories of distributive justice. Briefly, the main criticisms are as follows.
    ::由于过去30年来对“差异原则”进行了如此广泛的讨论,因此从所有其他五种分配公正理论的角度对“差异原则”提出了许多批评。 简而言之,主要批评如下。

    1. Advocates of strict equality argue that inequalities permitted by the Difference Principle are unacceptable even if they do benefit the least advantaged. The problem for these advocates is to explain in a satisfactory way why the relative position of the least advantaged is more important than their absolute position, and hence why society should be prevented from materially benefiting the least advantaged when this is possible. The most common explanation appeals to solidarity: that being materially equal is an important expression of the equality of persons.  Another common explanation appeals to the power some may have over others, if they are better off materially.  Rawls’ response to this latter criticism appeals to the priority of his first principle: The inequalities consistent with the Difference Principle are only permitted so long as they do not result in unequal liberty.  So, for instance, power differentials resulting from unequal income are not permitted if they violate the first principle of equal liberty, even if they increase the material position of the least advantaged group.
      ::严格平等的倡导者们认为,“差异原则”允许的不平等即使确实有利于最不利者,也是不可接受的。 这些倡导者的问题是以令人满意的方式解释为什么最不利者的相对地位比其绝对地位更重要,从而解释为什么当可能时,应该阻止社会在物质上为最不利者谋利。 最常见的解释呼吁团结:在物质上平等是人的平等的重要表现。 另一个共同的解释呼吁某些人拥有比其他人更优越的权力,如果他们在物质上更优越。 Rawls对后一批评的反应呼吁他的第一个原则的优先地位:只有不导致不平等自由,才允许符合“差异原则”的不平等。 因此,举例说,如果不平等收入造成的权力差异违反平等自由的首要原则,即使它们增加了最不利群体的物质地位,也不允许它们产生权力差异。
    2. The Utilitarian objection to the Difference Principle is that it does not maximize utility. In A Theory of Justice , Rawls uses Utilitarianism as the main theory for comparison with his own, and hence he responds at length to this Utilitarian objection and argues for his own theory in preference to Utilitarianism (some of these arguments are outlined in the reading  on Distributive  Principles below).
      ::对“差异原则”的实用反对是,它并没有最大限度地发挥效用。 在“正义理论”中,罗尔斯将“实用主义”作为与他自己的理论比较的主要理论,因此,他详细回应了“实用主义”的反对,并主张自己的理论,而不是“实用主义”(其中一些论点在下文关于分配原则的解读中作了概述)。
    3. Libertarians object that the Difference Principle involves unacceptable infringements on liberty. For instance, the Difference Principle may require redistributive taxation to the poor, and Libertarians commonly object that such taxation involves the im mor a l taking of just holdings. Some of these arguments are outline in the reading on Libertarian Principles below).
      ::自由主义者反对“差异原则”涉及不可接受的侵犯自由行为。 例如,“差异原则”可能要求向穷人再分配税收,自由主义者通常反对这种税收涉及不道德地获取公正财产。 其中一些论点在下文关于“自由原则”的读物中概述。
    4. The Difference Principle is also criticized as a primary distributive principle on the grounds that it mostly ignores claims that people deserve certain economic benefits in light of their actions. Advocates of Desert-Based Principles argue that some may deserve a higher level of material goods because of their hard work or contributions even if their unequal rewards do not also function to improve the position of the least advantaged. They also argue that the Difference Principle ignores the explanations of how people come to be in the more or less advantaged groups, when such explanations are relevant to the fairness of these positions.
      ::《差异原则》也被批评为一项主要分配原则,理由是它大多忽视了人们因其行为而理应获得某些经济利益的说法。 《沙漠原则》的倡导者认为,有些人可能因其辛勤工作或贡献而值得更高水平的物质货物,即使他们的不平等报酬也无助于改善处境最不利者的地位。 他们还认为,《差异原则》忽视了人们如何处于或多或少处于优势群体中的解释,而这种解释与这些职位的公平性相关。
    5. The Original Position and the Veil of Ignorance may exclude some morally relevant information. The theory excludes in order to promote rationality and is biased in favor of rationality.
      ::“原始立场”和“无知无常”可能排除一些道德信息。 理论排除了促进理性的理论,偏向于理性。
    6. Some criticize it for being similar to Utilitarianism in as much as these two principles could permit or demand inequalities and suffering in order to benefit the least well off.
      ::有些人批评说,尽管这两项原则允许或要求不平等和痛苦,以便从中得益最少,但这些原则与私有化相似。
    7. Like Desert theorists, advocates of Resource-Based Principles criticize the Difference Principle on the basis that it is not ‘ambition-sensitive’ enough, i.e. it is not sensitive to the consequences of people’s choices. They also argue that it is not adequately ‘ endowment -sensitive’: it does not compensate people for natural inequalities (like handicaps or ill-health) over which people have no control.
      ::与沙漠理论家一样,基于资源原则的倡导者批评差异原则,理由是它不够“对目标敏感 ” , 也就是说,它并不敏感于人们选择的后果。 他们还认为它不够“对承诺敏感 ” : 它不能补偿人们无法控制的自然不平等(如残疾或健康不良 ) 。
    8. There is also the difficulty in applying the theory to practice. It is difficult if not impossible for people to place themselves under the Veil of Ignorance in the Original Position in order to formulate what conduct would be required of them by the Maximum-Minimum  Principle.
      ::在实践上适用理论也有困难,人们很难甚至不可能将自己置于最初位置的无知程度之下,以便根据最大最低限度原则制定他们需要的行为。
    9. Some question whether or not people are rational enough to assume the veil of ignorance and operate under the two principles.
      ::有些人问,人们是否有足够的理性来遮盖无知的面纱,并根据这两项原则行事。
    10. The theory was developed more to handle problems within society and there are difficulties in applying the principles to individual decision-making involving specific others.
      ::理论的形成更是为了处理社会内部的问题,在将这些原则适用于涉及其他特定方面的个人决策方面有困难。

      Read
    ::已读

    lesson content

    EPISD Informed Problem Solvers Goal
    ::EPISD 信息化解决问题者目标

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    Philosophy Application
    ::哲学应用

    lesson content

    EPISD Critical Knowledge and Creative Thinkers Goal
    ::EPISD 关键知识和创意思想者目标

    Vocabulary
    ::词汇表

    lesson content

    EPISD Effective Bilingual Education Goal
    ::EPISD 有效双语教育目标