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  • 自由主义和保守主义

    Liberalism vs . Conservatism
    ::自由主义与保守主义

    The debate between liberals and conservatives is quite active in contemporary society.  How much you pay in taxes of all types is the outcome of that ongoing debate. There are many other ways in which the ideas associated with those social and political views have consequences in the lives of all members of society. It is important to have some idea of the meaning of those terms and the ideas associated with those movements.
    ::自由派和保守派之间的辩论在当代社会中相当活跃。 你为各种税收支付多少是这场持续辩论的结果。 与这些社会和政治观点有关的想法以许多其他方式影响社会所有成员的生活。 重要的是要对这些术语的含义和与这些运动有关的想法有一些了解。

    Today the term 'liberal' has come to be associated with a variety of principles, concepts and programs.  Liberals are often associated with ideas related to a welfare state and a system of taxes, subsidies, deductions, payments, regulations, restrictions, permissions, refunds, entitlements and other such ideas and programs.  The term was not always so associated.
    ::今天,“自由主义”一词已经与各种原则、概念和方案相关联。 自由主义往往与福利国家以及税收、补贴、扣减、支付、条例、限制、许可、退款、应享权利和其他此类想法和方案体系相关联。 这个词并不总是如此相关联。

    Liberal meant to "liberate" or "free" and as applied to social questions meant that individuals should be as free from interference from the government as possible. There were and remain a number of theories that are based upon placing a very high value on human autonomy , freedom or liberty. In social affairs it was taken to mean that individuals were to remain free to pursue their own interests and to work and to keep the results of their labor, that individuals had a right to property and to pursuit of what would make the happy.  The ideas of the U tilitarians contributed heavily to this view of how social life ought to be arranged.  Along with it came the idea that government should not interfere with individual’s earnings and with businesses. There was the idea of laissez- faire economics.   These ideas were supportive of capitalism.
    ::自由意味着“解放 ” 或“自由 ” , 并适用于社会问题,这意味着个人应该尽可能不受政府干涉。 有一些理论过去和现在都建立在高度重视人的自主、自由或自由的基础上。 在社会事务中,它意味着个人应该自由地追求自己的利益、工作和保持劳动成果,个人有权拥有财产和追求什么能让人民幸福。 乌蒂塔里人的想法在很大程度上促进了这种关于应该如何安排社会生活的观点。 与此同时,人们也认为政府不应该干涉个人的收入和企业。 自由和公平的经济思想也存在。 这些思想是支持资本主义的。

    Many of these ideas are linked to what are called "conservatives" in contemporary American society.  Among the most radical defenders of this view has been A yn R and and her ideas which are titled: Objectivism . 
    ::许多这类观点与当代美国社会所谓的“保守派”相关。 这一观点最激进的捍卫者是Ayn Rand及其题为“客观主义”的观点。

    Her views oppose state regulations as a form of collective interference. She is opposed to socialism and to all forms of collectivism and the M arxist ideal of taking from each according to ability and providing to each according to need.
    ::她反对国家条例作为一种集体干涉形式,她反对社会主义和一切形式的集体主义,反对马克思主义的理想,即根据每个人的能力和需要从中取舍。

    Social liberalism or Collectivism : this view holds that the division of social product is best left to impersonal, efficient, decentralized workings of free market. It is based on a number of assumptions including that people act out of enlightened self-interest and that they are not only autonomous agents but also prudent rational agents.
    ::社会自由主义或集体主义:这种观点认为,社会产品的分工最好由自由市场的非个人、高效、分散运作来决定。 它基于一些假设,包括人们出于开明的自我利益行事,他们不仅是自主的代理人,而且是谨慎的理性代理人。

    Read
    ::已读

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    Conservatism: A Philosophy of Human Imperfection
    ::保守主义:人类缺陷哲学

     

    In contemporary A merican society many liberals came to argue for more government intervention and their ideas came to be accepted by legislators and by the supreme court, when the court sustained one act of new deal legislation after another, asserting that individual citizens must be protected against overpowering economic groups and from disasters they have not brought on themselves. More and more laws were passed to provide for old-age and survivors insurance, unemployment insurance, federal control of various financial interests, minimum wages, supervision of agricultural production, and the right of labor unions to organize and bargain collectively. This all amounted to a radical change from the original ideas of E uropean liberals on the role of government.
    ::在当代的美国社会中,许多自由主义者纷纷要求政府采取更多的干预措施,他们的想法被立法者和最高法院接受,当法院支持一项又一项新政立法法案时,法院又坚持一项新政立法法案,主张必须保护公民个人免受经济团体的压倒性控制,避免他们自己没有引发的灾难。 通过了越来越多的法律,以提供老年和遗属保险、失业保险、联邦控制各种金融利益、最低工资、农业生产监督以及工会组织起来和集体谈判的权利。 这一切都相当于与欧洲自由主义者关于政府作用的最初思想的彻底转变。

    Despite the metamorphosis in the philosophy of liberalism since the mid-19th century, almost all modern liberals agree that their common objective is enlargement of the individual's opportunity to realize full potentialities . This has become a hallmark of liberalism today.  This is an idea cons istent with the ideas of J ohn Rawls.
    ::尽管自19世纪中叶以来自由主义哲学发生了转变,但几乎所有现代自由主义者都同意他们的共同目标是扩大个人充分发挥潜力的机会。 这已成为当今自由主义的标志。 这是符合约翰·罗尔斯思想的理念。

    The most widely discussed theory of distributive justice in the past three decades has been that proposed by J ohn Rawls.   R awls proposes the following two principles of justice:
    ::过去三十年中讨论得最为广泛的分配公正理论是约翰·罗尔斯提出的。

    1. each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive total system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all.
      ::每个人在享有最广泛的、与所有人的类似自由制度相符的、最广泛的平等基本自由制度方面享有平等权利。
    2. social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both:
      1. to the greatest benefit of the least advantaged, consistent with the just savings principle, and
        ::符合公正节约原则,使处境最不利者获得最大利益,
      2. attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
        ::附属于在公平机会均等的条件下向所有人开放的办公室和职位。

      ::将安排社会经济不平等和经济不平等,以便两者都做到:根据公正的储蓄原则,最有利于处境最不利者;在公平机会均等的条件下,附属于向所有人开放的办公室和职位。

    Rawls’ ideas are quite supportive of the notion of a welfare state.
    ::Rawls的想法相当支持福利国家的概念。

    1. Why is it that people are thought to have a right to what they have not worked to earn for themselves? 
      ::为什么人们被认为有权享受他们没有为自己挣钱而做的工作呢?
    2. Why is it that there is a law hat requires those who do work to provide for those who do not work or are unable to work? 
      ::为什么法律帽子要求那些有工作的人为那些没有工作或不能工作的人提供工作?
    3. We find the answers to those questions in the works of those who defend the welfare state.  
      ::我们从捍卫福利国家的人的工作中找到这些问题的答案。

    R obert  G oodin passionately and cogently defends the welfare state from current attacks by the new right.  He contends that the welfare state finds false friends in those on the old left who would justify it as a hesitant first step toward some larger, ideally just form of society. Reasons for welfare, in contrast, offers a defense of the minimal welfare state substantially independent of any such broader commitments, and at the same time better able to withstand challenges from the new right's moralistic political economy. This defense of the existence of the welfare state is discussed, flanked by criticism of old left and new right arguments that is both acute and devastating.
    ::罗伯特·古丁以热情和坚定的态度捍卫福利国家免受当前新右翼攻击。 他争辩说,福利国家发现老左翼的不实朋友,他们可以证明这是朝着某种更大、理想的公正社会形式迈出的犹豫不决的第一步。 相反,福利理由为基本福利国家提供了辩护,基本上独立于任何此类更广泛的承诺,同时更有能力抵御新右翼道德政治经济的挑战。 福利国家的存在受到批评,对旧左翼和新右翼观点的批评,这些批评既尖锐又具有破坏性。

    In the author's view, those possessing discretionary control over resources that they require best justify the welfare state as a device for protecting needy--and hence vulnerable--members of society against the risk of exploitation. Its' task is to protect the interests of those not in a position to protect themselves. Communitarian or egalitarian ideals may lead us to move beyond the welfare state as thus conceived and justified.  Moving beyond it, however, does not invalidate the arguments for constantly maintaining at least the minimal protections necessary for vulnerable members of society. There exists special obligations that are voluntary and strong obligations, such as with family, that are non-voluntary.  These strong obligations are based upon vulnerabilities of others. Family and others assist the vulnerable through voluntary charity, however, state (welfare) as “backup to the backup” assists the vulnerable and in this manner the vulnerable are dependent on the state.  Therefore it is possible to vest that vulnerable person with legal entitlement to assistance.
    ::提交人认为,那些对资源拥有自由裁量权的人,如果他们需要资源,就最有理由将福利国家作为保护社会贫困成员以及因而也是弱势成员免受剥削风险的一种手段,它的任务是保护那些没有能力保护自己的人的利益。社区或平等的理想可能使我们超越如此设想和合理的福利国家。然而,从这个角度出发,并不否定不断维持至少为社会弱势成员提供最低限度必要保护的论点。存在着自愿和强烈义务的特殊义务,如与家庭有关的非自愿义务。这些强有力的义务基于他人的脆弱性。家庭和其他方面通过自愿慈善帮助弱势者,然而,国家(福利)作为“后备”协助弱势者,以这种方式帮助弱势者取决于国家。因此,有可能赋予弱势者获得法律援助的法定权利。

    Today we appear to have reversed associations with many of the ideas originally associated with the terms “liberal” and “conservative”.
    ::今天,我们似乎扭转了与许多最初与“自由”和“保守”一词有关的想法的联系。

    Liberal
    ::自由自由自由

    Conservative
    ::保守

    Individual freedom
    ::个人自由

    Social order preservation
    ::维护社会秩序

    No government interference
    ::没有政府干涉

    Governmental action
    ::政府行动 政府行动

    Individuals are self-interested
    ::个人为私利

    Social welfare is primary interest
    ::社会福利是首要利益

    Laissez-faire
    ::劳动自由组织(Lissez-faire)

    Governmental restrictions
    ::政府限制

    These ideas are now associated with the groups that are bearing the opposite titles so that, for example, liberals are arguing for more government restrictions and provisions and the taxes to support those programs which protect people from themselves and from others. The questions of who gets to say what the laws will be and what the government will do is taken up under the heading of "political philosophy.”
    ::现在,这些想法与那些拥有相反头衔的团体有关,因此,比如,自由派正在主张更多的政府限制和规定以及税收,以支持保护人民不受自身和他人伤害的方案。 谁能说出法律会是什么以及政府会做什么的问题将在“政治哲学”的标题下处理。