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  • 政治哲学介绍

    Political Philosophy
    ::政治哲学

    Social philosophy relates to the question of "who gets what?" once the first question is answered there will be another question: "who says so?"  consideration of this question is part of political philosophy.  Among other questions under that heading are:
    ::社会哲学与“谁得到什么?” 的问题有关。 一旦第一个问题得到回答,就会有另一个问题:“谁这么说?” 对这个问题的审议是政治哲学的一部分。

    • What is the best form of government?
      ::什么是最好的政府形式?
    • Why should individuals obey the law?
      ::为什么个人要遵守法律?
    • Is taxation legitimate?
      ::税收是否合法?
    • What is the relation between the government and individuals?
      ::政府和个人之间有什么关系?
    • How should the distribution of goods and services be arranged?
      ::应如何安排货物和服务的分配?
    • How is the conflict of individual interest with the groups’ interest to be resolved?
      ::如何解决个人与集团利益之间的个人利益冲突?

    The state is the agency that enforces the answers to questions of distribution of goods and services.  The state has and is the power to enforce the decisions on how life shall be arranged through regulations and enforcement of penalties for violations of those regulations.
    ::国家是执行货物和服务分配问题答案的机构,国家拥有并有权通过条例和对违反这些条例的行为实施处罚,强制执行关于如何安排生活的决定。

    1. The state makes laws and commands and enforces the commands
      ::国家制定法律、命令和执行命令
    2. The state asserts
      1. use of force and the
        ::使用武力使用武力和使用武力使用武力以及使用武力使用武力和使用武力
      2. right to use force
        ::使用武力的权利

      ::国家主张使用武力和使用武力的权利

    The state is a group of people who claim the right to enforce obedience to their commands within a territory and succeed in getting most of the people in the territory to accept it. There are three things that must be legitimized wherever there is to be a state.  
    ::国家是一群人,他们声称有权在一个领土内强制服从他们的命令,并成功地使领土内的大多数人接受这一命令。 在任何一个国家中,有三件事必须合法化。

    Legitimacy is needed: 
    ::需要有合法性:

    1. For the existence of the state itself
      ::为了国家本身的存在
    2. For the particular type of government
      ::针对特定类型的政府
    3. For the present office holders
      ::现任现任职务
    • So, first there needs to be a theory that provides for the reasons that there needs to be a government at all. 
      • Several of those theories will be offered below. 
        ::下文将介绍其中的一些理论。

      ::因此,首先,需要有一个理论来说明为什么需要有一个政府。 其中一些理论将在下文中提出。
    • Next, there needs to be a legitimization for the particular type of government, be it democracy, republic, monarchy, etc.…
      ::接下来,必须使特定类型的政府合法化,无论是民主、共和国、君主制等等。
    • Finally, whatever the type of government, the current holders of its various offices must be legitimized. 
      • For example, if the government is a monarchy then the current head of government (king, queen, baron, pharaoh…) must provide evidence that the office holder is the proper heir to the throne or position of power due to birth.  
        ::例如,如果政府是君主政体,那么现任政府首脑(国王、王后、男爵、法老...)必须提供证据,证明官员因出生而成为王位或权力职位的适当继承人。

      ::最后,不管政府类型如何,其各种职位的现任负责人都必须合法化。 比如,如果政府是君主制政府,那么现任政府首脑(国王、王后、男爵、法老... )必须提供证据证明,由于出生,该官员是王位或权力职位的适当继承人。

    Thus evidence of lineage is important.  If the government is a democracy then the current holders of offices must demonstrate that they secured the sufficient number of votes in the election to merit holding office.
    ::因此,血缘关系的证据很重要。 如果政府是一个民主国家,那么现任官员必须证明他们在选举中获得了足够多的选票,以获得任职资格。

    Read
    ::已读

    •  

    Theories of Government 
    ::政府理论

    Natural law- D ivine R ight
    ::自然法-神圣权利

    This theory is quite old and quite direct and simple: God wants people to be ruled over as God rules over all creation.  As humans rule over other animals, they too need to be ruled. That government deserves to exercise power that has the power given to it by the divine being.  For example, the king deserves to rule for God wanted him to be the king.  When the king dies, his heir is to be ruler.  If the kingdom is overthrown and some other person takes power then after some time it may be believed that such a person must deserve to rule because God must have given approval or else God would not have permitted that person to overthrow the previous ruler.  Some rulers may go much further and declare themselves to be representatives of the deity or even to be a deity and thus deserve to be obeyed and honored.  If a ruler is overthrown it may be viewed as God’s will. 
    ::这个理论是相当古老的,非常直接和简单的:真主希望人们被统治,因为真主统治万物。人类统治其他动物,他们也需要被统治。政府应该行使神赋予它的权力。例如,国王应该统治国王,国王应该统治国王。当国王去世时,他的继承人应该是统治者。如果国权被推翻,而其他人掌权,那么,在一段时间之后,人们可能认为这个人应该统治,因为真主必须批准,否则,真主不会允许他推翻以前的统治者。有些统治者可能走得更远,宣称自己是神明的代表,甚至称自己是神明的代表,因此应该服从和尊崇。如果统治者被推翻,那可以被视为真主的旨意。

    Power-Might Makes Right
    ::Power- might 使右

    This too is a theory that is quite old and very simple and direct.  It is also still popular in a postmodern world.  It is that a government deserves to hold and exercise power if it has the power to enforce its rule over others. 
    ::这也是一种非常古老、非常简单和直截了当的理论。 它在后现代世界中仍然很受欢迎。 如果政府有权对他人实行统治,它就应该拥有和行使权力。

    How Power Corrupts
    ::功率如何腐败

    Read  Aesop's Fable below for illustration.
    ::下图请阅读Eesop的Fable。

       Aesop's Fables The Wild Ass and the Lion Translated by Townsend 1887
    ::1887年汤森特翻译的《野驴和狮子》

    A Wild Ass and a Lion entered into an alliance so that they might capture the beasts of the forest with greater ease.  The Lion agreed to assist the Wild Ass with his strength, while the Wild Ass gave the Lion the benefit of his greater speed. When they had taken as many beasts as their necessities required, the Lion undertook to distribute the prey, and for this purpose divided it into three shares. "I will take the first share," he said, "because I am King: and the second share, as a partner with you in the chase: and the third share (believe me) will be a source of great evil to you, unless you willingly resign it to me, and set off as fast as you can."
    ::一只野驴和一只狮子结成同盟,以便他们更加容易地捕捉森林的野兽。狮子同意以他的力量援助野驴,而野驴则以他更大的速度援助狮子。当它们象它们需要一样多的野兽时,狮子承诺分发猎物,并将猎物分成三股。他说:我要继承第一笔,因为我是国王;第二笔,作为你们的伙伴,追逐你们;第三笔,将是你们的大罪的源泉,除非你们愿意放弃我,并尽快地开走。

    Might makes right.
    ::也许是对的

      Anarchist
    ::无政府主义者

    This is a theory associated with many people throughout history.  In this view there is little or no justification for a state to impose its wishes upon individuals. There should be no infringement on human autonomy.  The highest obligation is to be autonomous and so anarchy is the correct political theory.  Individuals have no moral obligation to obey the state.
    ::这是一个与历史上许多人联系在一起的理论。 在这种观点中,国家将其愿望强加给个人的理由很少或根本没有。 不应侵犯人的自主性。 最高义务是自主,因此无政府主义才是正确的政治理论。 个人没有服从国家的道德义务。

    The Philosophical Nature of Anarchy
    ::无政府主义哲学性质

      Read
    ::已读

    •  

    Social Contract Theory
    ::社会契约理论

    A government holds power by the consent of the governed alone. There is no other basis.  When that consent no longer exists there is no longer a justification for that government to continue.  People maintain the right to withdraw their consent.
    ::仅经被管理者同意,政府掌握权力,没有其他依据。 当该同意不复存在时,政府就没有理由继续执政。 人们保留撤回同意的权利。

    Social Contract Theory
    ::社会契约理论

    Thomas Hobbes
    ::托马斯·霍布斯

    Hobbes held that humans are by nature equal and that from that equality there proceeds fear.  From fear there proceeds war and war presents many problems. To avoid the state of war people surrender some liberty (rights).  This surrender or transferring is the contract.  There is the possibility that should the contract be breached the government created by the contract is then void and another can be created.  Hobbes held that the government created by the contract would have absolute power.  For Hobbes humans are so prone to do harm to one another that it is only a choice between anarchy and absolutism.  The monster or leviathan is created or consented to in order to avoid anarchy and mutual self-destruction.  See link to biography and works below.
    ::Hobbes认为,人类在本质上是平等的,从这种平等中可以产生恐惧。从恐惧中开始战争和战争带来了许多问题。为了避免战争状态,人们交出一些自由(权利),这种交出或转让是合同。如果合同造成的合同被违反,则有可能是无效的,而另一个则可以成立。Hobbbes认为,合同造成的政府将拥有绝对的权力。Hobbbes认为,合同造成的政府将拥有绝对的权力。对于Hobbes人来说,伤害彼此非常容易,因此它只是无政府状态和绝对主义之间的一种选择。怪物或利维坦是为了避免无政府状态和相互自我毁灭而创造或同意的。见与下面的传记和作品的联系。

    Crash Course Philosophy: Thomas Hobbes and Contractarian Theory
    ::崩溃课程哲学:托马斯·霍布斯和合同论

    Jean-Jacques Rousseau
    ::让-雅克·卢梭

    Swiss political philosopher who held that the citizens of the state form a collective body ruled only by the general will that arises from each and applies to all, resulting in a perfect freedom and equality. See link to biography and works below video. 
    ::瑞士政治哲学家认为,国家公民组成一个集体机构,只受来自每个民族的普遍意志的支配,适用于所有人,从而实现完全的自由和平等。 见视频下面与传记和作品的联系。

    Political Theory of Jean-Jacques Rousseau
    ::Jean-Jacques Rousseau的政治理论

    Read
    ::已读

    • Definition:    
      ::定义:
    • Analysis:   
      ::分析:
    •  
    •  

        Meghan Ramsay (qcc, 2003)
    ::Meghan Ramsay(qcc,2003年)

    Rational beings consent to be governed in order to secure a more ordered and richer form of life than otherwise possible.  Although both Hobbes and Rousseau theorize that we should use a social  contract model for government, there are some key differences as to why we should use this model and who should be in charge.  The first difference is that with Hobbes, people are seen to be inherently at odds with one another.  Hobbes asserts that matters are only black and white: there is either anarchy or absolutism.  Since people only tend to look out for their own interests and behave in an egoist manner, they must either keep their freedom and deal with the consequence of every man doing for himself or they must surrender power and be led by one ruler who looks out for the best interest of the commonwealth.  I would venture to say that even this ruler is egoistical as what is good for him is what is good for the Commonwealth. He remains in power only if the people surrendering power to him are happy.  For Hobbes, people must give up their freedoms in order to protect themselves and serve their best interest.  For instance, if humans chose anarchy, there would be no laws regarding murder.  Everyone would be a potential victim. 
    ::理性的人类同意受管,以确保比其他可能更有序、更富裕的生活形式。虽然霍布斯和罗梭都认为我们应该为政府使用社会合同模式,但对于我们为什么应该使用这一模式以及谁应该负责,存在着一些关键分歧。第一个区别是,与霍布斯相比,人们被认为天生自相矛盾。霍布斯声称,事情只有黑白两面:要么是无政府状态,要么是专制主义。由于人们只注意自己的利益,以自私自利的方式行事,他们必须要么保持自由,处理每个人为自己做自己的事的后果,要么必须交出权力,由一位统治者领导,而统治者则为英联邦的最佳利益着眼。我敢说,即使这个统治者也是自私自利的,因为他对英联邦有好处。他仍然掌权,只有当人民向他投降权力时,他才会高兴。霍布斯认为,人们必须放弃自由,以保护自己,为自己的利益服务于自己。例如,如果人类选择了无政府主义,那么每个人都会成为受害者。

    So, in order for the egoists to ensure that their safety from murder is at least somewhat ensured, they surrender power to the commonwealth.  Rousseau, on the other hand, advocates that people voluntarily give up their freedoms for the good of the whole.  Where Hobbes can be seen as an egoist, Rousseau can be seen as a utilitarian.  Rousseau believes that the general will of the majority. According to Rousseau, this surrender of each to the good of the whole must take place in a way that also secures the unity of all in a desire for what will most benefit the whole.?  Rousseau is attempting to maximize utility.  He theorizes that everyone should think of the whole of society and do what is best for society at large, regardless of the consequences or results for the individual.  It is this general will that Rousseau believes is the best thing for citizens of the state to abide by. 
    ::因此,为了让利己主义者至少在某种程度上确保其免遭谋杀的安全,他们必须将权力交给联邦。 Rousseau则主张人们自愿放弃他们的自由以造福整个社会。在Hobbes可以被视为一个利己主义者的地方,Rousseau可以被视为一个功利主义者。Rousseau认为多数人的普遍意愿。根据Rousseau的说法,这种向全人类屈服的方式必须保证所有人团结一致,以追求最有利于整个国家的愿望。Rousseau试图最大限度地发挥效用。他认为每个人都应该思考整个社会,并且做对整个社会最好的事情,不管对个人的影响或结果如何。Rousseau认为,这种普遍意愿是国家公民遵守的最佳方式。

    Unlike Hobbes, for whom government exists to control all members of the society, for Rousseau, the government's responsibility is to pass and enforce legislation that fits into the general will of the population.  Additionally, in his text Leviathan, Hobbes advocates for a linear monarchy.  For Hobbes, the decisions made by the sovereign are completely arbitrary, so long as the people follow the decision the reasoning behind it does not matter.  He argues that a monarchy by heredity works best for governing purposes as there is no threat of competition from within society.  For Rousseau, monarchy is not an acceptable form of government as the good of all can be easily sacrificed by a monarch with self-interest.  Instead of a monarchy that is constant and stable, Rousseau advocates a government that is best suited to the needs of the citizens. 
    ::与Hobbes不同的是,Hobbes是政府控制社会所有成员的所在地,对Rousseau来说,政府的责任是通过和执行符合人民普遍意愿的立法。此外,在他的文本中,Hobbes主张建立直线君主制。对Hobbbes来说,君主制的决定是完全武断的,只要人民遵循决定的推理无关紧要。他争辩说,君主制的君主制最有利于治理目的,因为不存在来自社会内部的竞争威胁。 对Rousseau来说,君主制不是可以接受的政府形式,因为所有方面的利益都可以轻易地被一个具有自我利益的君主所牺牲。 而不是一个持续和稳定的君主制,Rousseau主张一个最适合公民需要的政府。

    For Rousseau, the leaders are temporary.  The citizens entering into the contract are free to constantly review the leaders and replace them when it seems fit for the good of the whole.  Rousseau advocates that leadership positions in which talents and skills are needed should be elected by the majority. 
    ::对罗梭来说,领导人是临时性的。 签订合同的公民可以自由地不断审查领导人,当他们似乎适合整体利益时,可以取代他们。 卢梭主张需要人才和技能的领导职位应该由多数人选举产生。

    Utilitarianism-Principle of Utility
    ::实用主义-实用主义原则

    A government has power and deserves to hold and exercise its power as long as it provides for maximum utility.  The state’s purpose is to provide for the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people.  As long as it does so it deserves to continue.  If it does not do so the government ought to be changed for one that does provide for utility.
    ::一个政府拥有权力,只要它能提供最大程度的效用,就应该拥有和行使权力。 国家的目的是为尽可能多的人提供最大的幸福。 只要它这样做,它就值得继续。 如果它不这样做,政府就应该为确实提供效用的政府改变。

    Crash Course Philosophy: Utilitarianism
    ::崩溃课程哲学:实用主义

    Resource
    ::资源资源资源资源资源资源资源资源资源资源资源资源

    Libertarian
    ::自由自由

    John Locke
    ::约翰洛克

    Rational beings agree to surrender a small portion of their freedom but not the right to life, property, representation and other goods. Individuals are not to become slaves to the state. John Locke was the B ritish philosopher who outlined the central tenets of empiricism in philosophy and in political theory argued that civil authorities rule only with the consent of those who are governed.
    ::理性的人同意交出一小部分自由,而不是生命、财产、代表权和其他物品的权利。 个人不能成为国家的奴隶。 John Locke是英国哲学家,他在哲学和政治理论中概述了经验主义的核心信条,认为民事当局只有在被统治者同意的情况下才能统治。

    Locke chose to avoid controversy by publishing his political writings anonymously.  With the two treatises of civil government (1690) Locke established himself as a political theorist of the highest order. The first treatise is a detailed refutation of the (now-forgotten) monarchist theories of R obert F ilmer, but the second treatise of government offers a systematic account of the foundations of political obligation. On L ocke's view, all rights begin in the individual property interest created by an investment of labor. The social structure or commonwealth, then, depends for its formation and maintenance on the express consent of those who are governed by its political powers. Majority rule thus becomes the cornerstone of all political order, and dissatisfied citizen’s reserve a lasting right to revolution. Similarly, L ocke's letter concerning toleration (1689) argued for a broad (though not limitless) acceptance of alternative religious convictions.
    ::洛克选择通过匿名发表政治著作来避免争议。 洛克以匿名方式发表政治著作来避免争议。 以民事政府的两个文章(1690年)为例,洛克自封为最高秩序的政治理论家。 第一个论文详细驳斥了(现被遗忘的)罗伯特·电影家的君主主义理论,但第二个政府论文系统地描述了政治义务的基础。 洛克的观点是,所有权利都从劳动投资创造的个人财产利益出发。 社会结构或联邦则取决于其形成和维持,取决于那些受其政治权力统治者的明确同意。 因此,多数规则成为所有政治秩序的基石,不满的公民保留了持久的革命权利。 同样,洛克关于容忍的信(1689年)主张广泛(尽管不是无限)接受替代的宗教信仰。

    John Locke and Liberalism: Private Property
    ::约翰·洛克和自由主义:私人财产

    Radical Libertarian : John Hospers
    ::激进自由:约翰·霍斯珀

    John Hospers, Ph. D., was an early leader in the libertarian movement. He was the libertarian party's first presidential candidate in 1972, and at the time headed the University of Southern C alifornia's philosophy department. His book Li bertarianism was one of three books defining early libertarian philosophy, the other two being R othbard's Libertarian M anifesto and N ozick's A narchy, S tate and U topia.  He is professor emeritus in philosophy at the U niversity of S outhern C alifornia and author of such important philosophical texts as: meaning and truth in the arts, human conduct, and an introduction to philosophical analysis. His numerous philosophical essays are well known for their clear and careful style. In 1972, J ohn H ospers served as the first libertarian party candidate for president.  He has served from then until now as a reference point and inspiration for scholars interested in basic questions of liberty. "The only legitimate function of the state is to protect individuals from internal and external threats to their security and property. The least government possible is the best government possible."
    ::John Hospers博士是自由自由运动的早期领袖。他是自由党1972年的首任总统候选人,当时任南加州大学哲学系主任。他的著作《自由主义》是三本书之一,它定义了自由主义早期哲学,另外两本书是罗斯巴德自由宣言和诺兹克的无政府主义、州和乌托邦。他是南加利福尼亚大学哲学荣誉教授,并撰写了重要的哲学著作,例如:艺术的意义和真理、人类行为和哲学分析的介绍。他的众多哲学论文以其清晰和谨慎的风格而著称。1972年,约翰·霍斯珀斯担任第一位自由党总统候选人。他从那时起一直担任对基本自由问题感兴趣的学者的参考点和灵感。“国家的唯一合法职能是保护个人不受国内外对其安全和财产的威胁。政府的可能性最小。政府是最好的政府。 ”

     Omonia V inieris (qcc, 2002) on The Libertarian Theory of Government
    ::Omonia Vinieris(qcc,2002年),关于政府自由理论

    Libertarianism is the most diplomatic and open-minded political philosophy in the world. The application of the concept of non-coercion is crucial to the libertarian theory of government. Libertarians are passionate opponents of physical coercion because as they are promoters of freedom. They see aggressive and coercive force as a threat to libertarian principles of freedom. The initiation of forceful action is considered to be immoral, especially where government is concerned. The use of force, if permissible by a regime, is deemed to be an infringement upon an individual’s right to life, liberty, property, self-governance or belief. Therefore, the libertarian notion of non-coercion adamantly sets restrictions on governmental authority in order to ensure that certain unalienable rights which uphold autonomous principles are not violated.
    ::自由主义是世界上最外交和思想最开放的政治哲学。应用非胁迫概念对于政府自由理论至关重要。自由主义者热衷于反对人身胁迫,因为他们是自由的促进者。他们认为侵略和胁迫性武力是对自由自由原则的威胁。采取强力行动被认为是不道德的,特别是在涉及政府的情况下。如果政权允许使用武力,则被视为侵犯个人的生命权、自由权、财产权、自治权或信仰权。 因此,自由主义的自由主义概念对政府权力施加了严厉限制,以确保维护自治原则的某些不可剥夺的权利不受侵犯。

    Although libertarians oppose the initial use of force, the act of exercising force first, there are two types of force that are urged with the aim of upholding one’s personal and property rights. Defensive force is acted upon when one’s rights are threatened. It is then that an individual uses force to defend himself and his safety. The government, in turn, should also execute the power to protect individuals by means of defensive force. When one’s own survival is imperiled, then the choice to forcibly defend one’s self is a valid and anticipated option.  Retaliatory force is a form of retribution against those who initiated force upon an individual. The judicial systems of most states are sanctioned to penalize those who initiated the force. Whereas coercion and aggression are condemned by libertarians, force that safeguards the survival and justice of individuals is welcomed into non-coercive policy.
    ::尽管自由主义者反对最初使用武力,但首先使用武力的行为,但为了维护个人和财产权利而敦促使用两种类型的武力。 当一个人的权利受到威胁时,就采取防御性武力。 此时,个人使用武力捍卫自己和他的安全。 而政府也应该通过防御性武力来行使保护个人的权力。 当一个人的生存受到威胁时,强制自卫的选择是有效和预期的选择。 报复性武力是对对个人发动武力的人的一种报复形式。 大多数国家的司法系统都受到制裁,惩罚那些发起武力的人。 尽管自由主义者谴责了胁迫和侵略,但保护个人生存和正义的武力却被欢迎为非胁迫性政策。

    Libertarians embrace the idea of minimal governmental intervention. They regard a government that governs least to be one that governs best.  Libertarians constantly strive to debilitate the role of government in society.  Governments should solely absorb themselves with the moral foundation of preserving and safeguarding individuals’ rights and with the interdiction of forceful action. Yet, the truth of the matter is that governmental administrators permit the initiation of force in order to attain political and authoritative recognition from the people. Government is occasionally understood to be an institution of forceful control and that is why libertarians attempt to suppress its authority.  Libertarians argue that the government does not possess some special type of supernatural entitlement that justifies the violation of its citizens’ rights. In a free society, the government purely functions to defend and retaliate against those who instigate and use force. As we can see, libertarians agree with force that is executed for defensive and retaliatory purposes against those who initiate the force.  By no means, however, should the government be the initiator of force.
    ::自由派拥护政府干预的理念。他们认为治理政府最少是治理最好的政府。自由派不断试图削弱政府的社会作用。政府应该仅仅吸收维护和捍卫个人权利的道德基础,并禁止采取强力行动。然而,事实是政府行政官员允许使用武力,以便获得人民的政治和权威性承认。政府有时被理解为是强权控制的机构,这也是自由派试图压制其权威的原因。自由派认为政府并不拥有某种特殊类型的超自然权利,而这种权利是侵犯公民权利的正当理由。在一个自由社会,政府纯粹职能是捍卫和报复那些煽动和使用武力的人。 正如我们可以看到的那样,自由派同意使用武力是为了防御和报复目的对发动武力的人使用武力的。 但是,政府绝不应该成为武力的发起者。

    On the whole, libertarians assert that mutual consent and agreement are peaceful and diplomatic means in which people should opt to deal with each other.  The following aspects of freedom roughly encapsulate libertarian doctrine:
    ::总的来说,自由主义者认为,相互同意和协议是人民选择彼此交往的和平与外交手段。

    • Freedom is life: On the condition that people do not violate the rights of other individuals, they rightfully may live their lives as they wish. Personal and property rights encompass the notion of living happily and freely.
      ::自由就是生活:在人民不侵犯其他个人权利的条件下,他们可以按自己的意愿过自己的生活,个人和财产权包含幸福和自由生活的概念。
    • Freedom is responsibility: People have the freedom of choice which means they are solely accountable for the consequences of their actions.
      ::自由是责任:人民有选择的自由,这意味着他们只对其行为的后果负责。
    • Freedom is justice"  Force is an acceptable choice if it appropriately serves to defend and retaliate against those who initiate force and infringe upon your rights to live.
      ::武力是可以接受的选择, 如果它能适当地捍卫和报复那些发起武力和侵犯你生存权的人的话。

    Read
    ::已读

    •  

    Marxism
    ::马克主义

    Property belongs to the state that distributes it for human welfare. The state takes from each, as they are able and gives to each, as there is need.  The function of providing justice is that which legitimizes political authority (power). Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels,  Communist Manifesto. 
    ::财产属于为人类福利而分配财产的国家。 国家根据需要,从每一个地方获取他们的能力和给予的财富。 提供正义的职能是使政治权力(权力)合法化。 卡尔·马克思和弗里德里希·恩格尔斯,共产主义宣言。

        Omonia Vinieris (qcc, 2002) on Marxist Theory of Government
    ::Omonia Vinieris(qcc,2002年),关于政府马克思主义理论

    Karl Marx’s theory of government is best expressed in his book the Communist Manifesto.  In this book, M arx explains the goals of communism, an evolutionary form of its socialist origin. The law and the state arise out of the development of classes at odds with each other throughout the course of history. Ultimately, socialism will triumph as class conflict comes to an end.  In its demise comes along the elimination of private property. At this point there will be no need for law or the state as history will remain in a seamless state of stillness.
    ::卡尔·马克思的《共产主义宣言》一书最能体现他的政府理论。 马克思在这本书中解释了共产主义的目标 — — 共产主义的进化形式 — — 社会主义起源。 法律和国家产生于历史上不同阶级的发展。 归根结底,随着阶级冲突结束,社会主义将获胜。 在其消亡过程中,私有财产将随之消失。 此时此刻,将不需要法律,也不需要国家,因为历史将处于无休止状态。

    Class conflict initially arises from the emergence of property. As each class strives to acquire property, in the ends one eventually overpowers and exploits the other in its struggle. Thus, Marx explains that class struggles are inherently anchored in the manipulation of one class by another. Historical progression throughout the ages is the immediate outcome of class struggle. At this point in time, we are in the capitalist stage of history. Capitalism is an economic system in which individuals or corporations privately own the means of production.  This concept of private property is what distinguishes this capitalist phase of history from past eras. However, these relationships between the classes will cease to be congruent as the developing means of production give rise to an imbalance.  At this point, a revolution transpires and a new dominant class materializes. 
    ::阶级冲突最初起源于财产的出现。 当每阶级努力获得财产时, 最终取而代之的是, 最终取而代之的是, 最终取而代之。 因此, 马克思解释说, 阶级斗争的内在根基是一阶级操纵另一阶级。 历史的不断演变是阶级斗争的直接结果。 目前,我们正处于历史的资本主义阶段。 资本主义是个人或公司私人拥有生产手段的经济体系。 这种私人财产的概念是将历史的资本主义阶段与过去时代区别开来的。 但是,随着生产手段的开发,阶级之间的关系将不再一致,从而导致不平衡。 此时,一场革命爆发,新的主导阶级逐渐形成。

    Marx explains that capitalism is the most decisive stage of historical progression because it is in its imminent future that socialism will triumph and all classes will expire from existence. In socialist theory private property is subject to collective control of the state. Class struggle is the driving force behind the sequence of a capitalist shift to socialism. As soon as the conflict between the classes comes to an end, history itself will come to a standstill and perfect bliss will pervade the earth in its socialist state. The classes in discord in the present capitalist stage of history are of two sorts: the property owners who do not work (bourgeoisie), and the property-less workers (proletariat). The proletariat will eventually revolt as the relationship between the two classes fails because capitalism proves to be erratic and unsteady. In due course this revolution will beget the take-over of socialism.  Private property will then be demolished by the proletariat. Thus it is acquisition of property that renders the divergent nature of the classes.  Socialism would implicate Utopian means of production. The law and the state will serve no purpose in a socialist state because order and equality will prevail.
    ::马克思解释说,资本主义是历史进步的最决定性的阶段,因为在即将到来的将来,社会主义将获胜,所有阶层都将消失。在社会主义理论中,私有财产受国家的集体控制。阶级斗争是资本主义向社会主义转变的动力。一旦阶级之间的冲突结束,历史本身就会陷入停滞和完美的幸福,将渗透到地球的社会主义状态。当前资本主义阶段的不和分为两类:不工作的地产所有者(资产阶级)和没有财产的工人(财产阶级)。由于资本主义被证明是不稳定和不稳定的,这两个阶层之间的关系失败,无产阶级最终将进行反抗。在适当的时候,这场革命将取代社会主义。此后,私有财产将被无产阶级摧毁。因此,获得的财产使得阶级性质不同。社会主义将隐含乌托邦的生产手段。法律和国家不会在社会主义国家有任何目的,因为秩序和平等将占上风。

    Philosophically speaking, Marxism falls into the branch of empiricism called dialectal Materialism. This philosophy’s focal point is on the senses which recognize peripheral actuality exclusive of emotional intervention. Hegel, Marx’s collaborator, helped to define the dialectic aspect of Materialist Philosophy in that ideas are always in motion or in a constant state of change. Change is the continual clash between ideas as we see in struggling classes of history.  The emergence of a first thesis conflicts with the emergence of an antithesis. From these opposing ideas springs a resolution called a synthesis. This process repeats itself until one day a final synthesis subdues the two conflicting ideas (socialism).
    ::从哲学角度讲,马克思主义属于称为辩证材料主义的共产主义。 这一哲学的焦点在于承认边缘现实的感官,而情感干预则除外。 马克思的合作者黑格尔帮助定义了物质哲学的辩证方面,即思想总是在运动或不断发生变化。 变化是我们在艰难的历史历程中看到的各种思想之间的持续冲突。 第一个理论的出现与对抗论的出现相冲突。 从这些对立思想中产生了一个叫作合成的解决方案。 这一过程会重复到有一天,最后的合成会掩盖两种相互矛盾的思想(社会主义 ) 。

    Read
    ::已读

    • Biography:  
      ::传记:
    • Bibliography:
      ::书目:

    The Political Theory of Karl Marx
    ::卡尔·马克思的政治理论

    Justice Theory
    ::司法理论

    According to this approach a government deserves to hold and exercise power as long as it provides for justice.  If it does not do so then it should be altered or overturned for a government that does provide for justice.  No justice, no peace.  What does justice mean?
    ::根据这一方针,只要政府提供正义,它就应该拥有和行使权力。 如果政府不这样做,那么它应该被一个提供正义的政府改变或推翻。 没有正义,就没有和平。 正义意味着什么?

    Plato’s theory of justice involved the idea of the harmony of all parts.  When all parts of society are working as they are supposed to do, when they are fulfilling their purpose then there shall be justice in the state.
    ::柏拉图的正义理论涉及到所有部分的和谐理念。 当社会所有部分都按照他们应该做的做,当他们达到目的时,国家就会有正义。

    Crash Course Philosophy: What is Justice?
    ::崩溃课程哲学:什么是正义?

    Plato's Theory of Justice
    ::柏拉图的正义理论

    Plato asserts that functional specialization demands from every social class to specialize itself in the station of life allotted to it. Justice, therefore to Plato is like a manuscript that exists in two copies, and one of these is larger than the other.  It exists both in the individual and the society.  But it exists on a larger scale and in more visible form in the society. Individually "justice is a 'human virtue' that makes a man self-consistent and good: socially, justice is a social consciousness that makes a society internally harmonious and good."
    ::柏拉图宣称,功能专业化要求每个社会阶层在分配给它的生活岗位上专业化。 因此,司法,对柏拉图来说,就像手稿存在两本,其中一本比另一本还大。它存在于个人和社会之中。但它存在于个人和社会之中。但它在社会上以更大规模和更明显的形式存在。 个人而言,“正义是一种“人性美德 ” , 它使一个人能够自我一致和善良:社会上,正义是一种社会意识,它使社会内部和谐和美好。”

    Justice is thus a sort of specialization. It is simply the will to fulfill the duties of one's station and not to meddle with the duties of another station, and its habitation is, therefore, in the mind of every citizen who does his duties in his appointed place.  It is the original principle, laid down at the foundation of the state, "that one man should practice one thing only and that the thing to which his nature was best adopted."  True justice to Plato, therefore, consists in the principle of non-interference.  Plato as a perfect has considered the state whole in which each individual which is its element, functions not for itself but for the health of the whole. Every element fulfills its appropriate function.  Justice in the platonic state would, therefore, be like that harmony of relationship where the planets are held together in the orderly movement. Plato was convinced that a society that is so organized is fit for survival.  Where men are out of their natural places, there the co-ordination of parts is destroyed, the society disintegrates and dissolves.  Justice, therefore, is the citizen sense of duties.
    ::因此,正义是一种专业化。这仅仅是履行一个人的岗位职责的意愿,而不是干预另一个岗位的职责,因此,每个公民在指定岗位上履行职责时,其居住地就是每一个公民的心智。这是最初的原则,在国家的根基上规定,“一个人只应做一件事,而其本性最能接受的事情。”因此,柏拉图的真正公正就在于不干涉原则。柏拉图完美地考虑了作为该职位组成部分的每个人的状态,不是为自身运作,而是为整个健康而运作。每个要素都符合其适当功能。因此,平板国家的司法将像在有序运动中将行星团结在一起的和谐关系一样。普拉托相信,一个组织起来的社会适合生存。在人类的自然位置之外的地方,部分被摧毁,社会解体和解体。因此,正义就是公民的责任感。

    Plato's Theory of Justice
    ::柏拉图的正义理论

    John Rawls' Theory of Justice
    ::约翰·罗尔斯的司法理论

    The function of the state is to provide justice as fairness, an arrangement of institutions whereby maximal liberty consistent with equal opportunity and a principle to benefit the worst off is the central principle. (the maxi min principle)
    ::国家的职能是提供公正公正作为公平,这种机构安排的核心原则是:符合平等机会的最高自由以及有利于最坏人的原则。 (最高原则)

    Some criticize R awls' notion of justice for requiring that the least well-off be cared for and made better and that the view of the least well off is a relative notion or judgment of their situation and not an absolute judgment.
    ::有些人批评罗尔斯的正义概念, 要求最不富裕者得到照顾和更好的待遇, 最不富裕者的观点是对其处境的相对概念或判断, 而不是绝对判断。

    Illustration:
    ::说明:

    • Let's say that there are 10 people.
      ::假设有10个人
    • Their income ranges from $1,000,000 to $50,000 per year.
      ::他们的收入每年从100万美元到50万美元不等。
    • The average income is $150,000.
      ::平均收入为150 000美元。

    Why should we care about the least well off ($50,000) in the group relative to the others and even least well off compared to the average if that person is making $50,000/year in a society where $50,000 provides for a very comfortable life?
    ::我们为什么要关心这个群体中与其他人相比最少的富裕(50 000美元),如果此人在一个有50 000美元过上舒适生活的社会中每年挣50 000美元,那么与平均收入相比,我们为什么要关心这个群体中最少的富裕(50 000美元)呢?

    Relative to the average the $50,000 person is negative or down $100,000 from the average. But still the $50k might be pretty good in an absolute sense that it provides well for all the basics of life.
    ::相对平均来说,50 000美元的人是负数,或者比平均少100 000美元。 但是,从绝对意义上说,5 000美元可能还不错,因为它能很好地满足生活的所有基本需要。

    Now you can substitute for the annual income:
    ::现在您可以替代年收入:

    • Physical abilities
      ::体力能力
    • Type of residence
      ::居住地类型
    • Ability to think, do math, speak foreign languages, make music, paint , etc...
      ::思考、数学、讲外语、制作音乐、绘画等能力...

    Why would justice always require taking care to improve the position of the least well off-relative to the others?  Take the and then review the analysis of your answers.
    ::为什么正义总是需要注意改善最不富裕者相对于其他人的地位? 接受并审查你对答案的分析。

    Conclusion
    ::结论 结论 结论 结论 结论

    So there are a variety of theories on government. There are a variety of political philosophies.  Each offers it view on how it is that government is to hold and exercise power over individuals.  Each operates within a more general view of how it is that society ought to be regulated.  One of the ways in which governments must act is to resolve the conflicts that arise in every society between the interests that individuals have in their own welfare and happiness and the interest that the group as a whole has in its welfare.  This will be the subject of the next section.
    ::因此,政府有各种各样的理论。有各种各样的政治哲学。每个理论都对政府如何掌握和行使对个人的权力提出了看法。每个理论都从更广义的角度看待社会应该如何管理。政府必须采取行动的方式之一是解决每个社会中个人在福利和幸福方面的利益与整个群体在福利方面的利益之间的冲突。这将成为下一节的主题。