Course: 2.2 文化变化 | The Way To Learn

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Objectives
::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标

Students will be able to describe cultural universals and explain why they exist.
::学生将能够描述文化普世性,并解释其存在的原因。

Explain what the terms ethnocentrism and cultural relativism mean.
::解释民族中心主义和文化相对主义这两个术语的含义。

Identify and explain the factors that account for variations among and within cultures.
::查明并解释造成文化之间和文化内部差异的因素。

Universal Generalizations
::普遍化

Cultures have certain characteristics in common because all societies must develop certain features to ensure their accomplishments.
::文化具有某些共同特点,因为所有社会都必须发展某些特征,以确保取得成就。

In order to hold an open mind toward cultural variations, cultures must be judged by their own standards and not the standards of another culture.
::为了对文化差异持开放的心态,必须根据文化本身的标准而不是另一种文化的标准来判断文化。

Guiding Questions
::问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问问

What are cultural universals, and what is their significance?
::什么是文化普世性,其意义何在?

What is ethno-centrism?
::什么是种族中心?

What is cultural relativism?
::什么是文化相对主义?

What factors account for variations among and within cultures?
::文化之间和文化内部差异的原因是什么?

Understanding the Nature of Culture
::理解文化的性质

Cultures are part of the human social experience. They are comparable to ice-cream flavors, each tends to be sweet and desirable while still having a vast variety of ingredients and textures. Yet, even though cultures tend to be universal and desirable, we often judge cultures as being "good, bad, or evil," with our own culture typically being judged good. We have to consider our perspective when engaging people from different cultures. Are we ethnocentric or culturally relativistic? Also before traveling consider your own values and stereotypes. A Stereotype is a broad generalization about groups based solely on the group affiliation. Although it will be discussed more in the Race chapter, stereotypes have to be managed, especially among ethnocentric persons.
::文化是人类社会经历的一部分。文化与冰淇淋的口味相似,每个口味都是甜美和可取的,同时仍然有各种各样的成分和质地。然而,尽管文化往往具有普遍性和可取性,但我们常常将文化评为“好、坏或邪恶 ” , 我们自己的文化通常被评为“好、坏或邪恶 ” 。我们必须在吸引不同文化的人时考虑我们的观点。我们是否以种族为中心或文化相对性?在旅行之前还考虑你自己的价值观和陈规定型观念。陈规定型观念是一种仅仅基于群体归属的对群体的广泛概括。尽管在种族章节中将更多地讨论这一问题,但必须管理陈规定型观念,特别是在族裔中心的人中。

Culture is the shared values, norms, symbols, language, objects, and way of life that is passed on from one generation to the next. Culture is what we learn from our parents, family, friends, peers, and schools. It is shared, not biologically determined. In other words, you are only born with drives, not culture.
::文化是代代相传的共同价值观、规范、符号、语言、客体和生活方式。文化是我们从父母、家人、朋友、同龄人和学校学到的东西。文化是共享的,不是生物决定的。换句话说,你生来就只有驱动力,而不是文化。

Values are defined standards of what is good, bad, desirable, or undesirable for ourselves and others. Typical American values—considered for the entire nation and described by Williams, 1970 were: achievement and success; equality; individualism; racism and group superiority; activity and work ; education; efficiency and practicality; religiosity; progress; romantic love/monogamy; science and technology; equal opportunity; material comfort; nationalism/patriotism; humanitarianism; external conformity; freedom; and democracy and free enterprise (see Williams, R. M. (1970). American Society: A Sociological Interpretation, 3rd Ed. NY; Knopf). Do these collective values apply to your own personal values? It helps to do your homework about your country and your own personal values before you experience another culture.
::1970年威廉姆斯所描述的美国典型价值观是:成就和成功;平等;个人主义;种族主义和群体优越性;活动和工作;教育;效率和实用性;宗教;进步;浪漫的爱/共产主义;科学和技术;平等机会;物质安慰;民族主义/爱国主义;人道主义;外部遵守;自由;民主和自由企业(见威廉姆斯,R.M.(1970年);美国社会学会:社会学解释,纽约第三大学;Knopf.)这些集体价值观是否适用于你的个人价值观?这些集体价值观是否适用于你自己的个人价值观? 在你经历另一种文化之前,它有助于你对贵国和你自己的个人价值观做功课。

Regardless of which culture a person grows up in, there are cultural universals which are for the most part common to all cultures. Cultural Universals are certain aspects of cultures which are found among peoples of all cultures throughout the world. All societies have universal social tasks which include the meeting of basic human needs such as breathing, eating, sleeping, drinking, having sex, and remaining safe. These universals include: adapting to and coping with physical environment; assigning of roles; controlling reproduction and relations between the sexes; communicating; maintaining some form of authorized government; and socializing children.
::无论一个人在何种文化中成长,都有文化普世性,这些文化普世性是所有文化中常见的,文化普世性是全世界所有文化的民族所共有的文化的某些方面,所有社会都有普遍的社会任务,其中包括满足人类的基本需要,如呼吸、饮食、睡眠、饮酒、性生活和保持安全,这些普遍性包括适应和应付物质环境;分配角色;控制生殖和两性之间的关系;交流;维持某种形式的经批准的政府;以及儿童的社会化。

https://www.google.com/search?q=cultural+universals&biw=1366&bih=599&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ei=UhpZVcqSL43eoATw_ILABg&ved=0CAYQ_AUoAQ#tbm=isch&q=cultural+universals+examples&revid=538179073&imgrc=tPiaQ-uRIDvkEM%253A%3BxEsSuDZYgsdjbM%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fimage.slidesharecdn.com%252Fsociologyunit2powerpointfinal-140222063231-phpapp01%252F95%252Fsociology-unit-2-culture-and-society-21-638.jpg%253Fcb%253D1393050912%3Bhttp%253A%252F%252Fwww.slideshare.net%252FMrTimBradley%252Fsociology-unit-2-culture-and-society%3B638%3B479
::http://www.google.com/search?q=文化+普世性 & biw=1366&bih=599 & source=ms&tbm=is&sa=X&ei=UhpZVcqSL43eauATw_ILABg&ved=0CAY*AUA_Tbm=isch&q=文化+普世性+examples&revid=538179073&imamplc=5389073&examplc=PiaQ-uRIDvkEM% 253A%3Bs253DZgsdjbM%3B252FR253FR%FR225_FROD2_FM225_FICOIA%FR225_FCY2FSOIL%F225_FCY2FCUIL%F225_FCIO%FSUIAL%F225_F2FSUIAL%FSOIGIAL%F2F2F2FSOIAL%F225_FSOIAL%FSOIAL%FSUIAL%F2F2FSOIGIGIGIGIFF%F2_F2FSOIFF%F2_FSO%F%FSOIGIGIGIGIGIGIGI

Key Point : You should never, ever be required to forfeit your own values in the pursuit of teachability, cultural relativism, and skilled cross-cultural relationships. If the typical US culture is more like your world-taken-for-granted and you travel to an equatorial country where they behave in a different manner, then your enthusiastic hand shaking, personal questioning, and space intrusions might land you in hot water (see Table 5 below). It’s best not to assume that a polite American also makes a polite Costa Rican and vice versa.
::关键点:在追求教义、文化相对主义和熟练跨文化关系的过程中,永远不应该要求你放弃自己的价值观。如果典型的美国文化更像你的世界观赠予者,你到一个赤道国家旅行,在那里他们的行为方式不同,那么你热情的握手、个人询问和空间入侵可能会把你置于热水中(见下文表 5 ) 。最好不要假设一个有礼貌的美国人也会让一个有礼貌的哥斯达黎加人成为一个有礼貌的哥斯达黎加人,反之亦然。

Table 5: Aren’t My Best Cultural Skills (the ones that work so well for me at Home) Good Enough to Interact Successfully in Another Culture? Perhaps not.
::」表5:我的最佳文化技能(在家对我这么好)是否足够在另一文化中成功互动?

Typical Mainstream US Cultural traits	Typical Equatorial Cultural Traits
-Shake hands	-Bow, Nod, or Gesture
-Ask personal questions about family, friends, and health	-Ask only general questions about weather and business
-Speak informally by first names	-Speak formally by titles and last names
-Stand close to the other person	-Stand at a distance
-Pat other on back, shoulder, or arm	-No touching at all
-Men and/or women may speak to anyone	-Men speak to men and women to women

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge others based on our own experiences. In this perspective our culture is right while cultures which differ from our own are wrong. The fact of cultural diversity raises some important but difficult questions of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism. , the opposite view, refers to the tendency to judge another culture by the standards of our own and to the belief that our own culture is indeed superior to another culture. When we think of cow worship in India, it is easy to be amused by it and even to make fun of it. That is why anthropologist Marvin Harris’s analysis was so important, because it suggests that cow worship is in fact very important for the Indian way of life. Culture Shock is the disoriented feeling which occurs in the context of being in a new culture. It tends to leave over a few days or weeks and the greater the familiarity with the culture the less the shock
::种族中心论是一种根据我们自己的经验来评判他人的倾向。从这个角度看,我们的文化是正确的,而与我们不同的文化则是错误的。文化多样性的事实提出了一些重要但困难的民族中心论和文化相对论问题。相反的观点则是指以我们自己的标准来评判另一种文化的倾向,以及认为我们自己的文化确实优于另一种文化的信念。当我们想到印度的牛崇拜,很容易被它取笑,甚至取笑它。这就是为什么人类学家Marvin Harris的分析如此重要,因为它表明牛崇拜事实上对印度生活方式非常重要。文化震荡是一种在新文化中发生的不感动的感觉。它往往会离开几天或几周,对文化的熟悉程度越大,冲击就越小。

Another more valuable and helpful perspective about differing cultures is the perspective called Cultural Relativism , or the tendency to look for the cultural context in which differences in cultures occur. refers to the belief that we should not judge any culture as superior or inferior to another culture. In this view, all cultures have their benefits and disadvantages, and we should not automatically assume that our own culture is better and “their” culture is worse. Cultural relativists like all the ice-cream flavors, if you will. They respect and appreciate cultural differences even if only from the spectators’ point of view. They tend to be teachable, child-like, and open-minded. They tend to enjoy or learn to enjoy the many varieties of the human experience.
::关于不同文化的另一种更宝贵和更有帮助的观点是文化相对论,或寻找文化差异产生文化背景的倾向。提到我们不应该把任何文化看成优于或优于其他文化的信念。在这种观点中,所有文化都有其好处和劣势,我们不应该自动假定我们自己的文化更好,“他们的”文化更差。文化相对论者像所有冰淇淋的口味一样,如果你们愿意的话。他们尊重并欣赏文化差异,即使只是从观众的观点来看也是如此。他们倾向于具有教义性、儿童式和开放性。他们倾向于享受或学会享受人类经验的许多种类。

An ethnocentric thinks on the level of carrot soup: peel carrots, and water, and boil. The cultural relativist tends to think on the level of a complex stew: peel and prepare carrots, potatoes, onions, mushrooms, broth, tofu, and 10 secret herbs and spices and simmer for 2 hours. The diversity of the human experience is what makes it rich and flavorful.
::一种以种族为中心的思想对胡萝卜汤水平的思考:剥胡萝卜、水和沸腾。文化相对论者倾向于对复杂的炖菜水平进行思考:剥胡萝卜、土豆、洋葱、蘑菇、汤、豆腐、10种秘密草药和香料,以及两小时的浸泡。人类经验的多样性是丰富和滋味的源泉。

But, do cultural relativists have to accept all versions of morality, ethics, values, and traditions in order to be teachable? No, of course not. Anyone who is planning a trip to another community, state, or country would be wise to do their cultural homework and prepare in advance how they will immerse themselves into the parts of the culture that fit their value system. Always do your cultural homework before you travel even if you are just spending time across the state for a day. Remember that your best cultural skills may be antagonistic to those from other cultures.
::但是,文化相对论者是否必须接受道德、伦理、价值观和传统的所有版本才能被教授? 不,当然不是。任何计划去另一个社区、州或国家的人明智地做他们的文化功课,并预先准备如何融入适合他们价值体系的文化部分。在你旅行之前总是做你的文化功课,即使你只是在全州度过一天时间。记住,你最好的文化技能可能与其他文化背景的人是敌对的。

A refers to a group that shares the central values and beliefs of the larger culture but still retains certain values, beliefs, and norms that make it distinct from the larger culture. A good example of a U.S. subculture is the Amish, who live primarily in central Pennsylvania and parts of Ohio and shun electricity and other modern conveniences, including cars, tractors, and telephones. Their way of life is increasingly threatened by the expansion of non-Amish businesses and residences into Amish territory (Rifkin, 2009). Rifkin, G. (2009, January 8). The Amish flock from farms to small businesses. The New York Times , p. B3. Since the 1970s, development has cost Lancaster County, Pennsylvania—where many Amish live—thousands of acres of farming land. Some Amish families have moved to other states or left farming to start small businesses, where some do use cell phones and computers. Despite these concessions to modern development, for the most part the Amish live the way they always have. Most still do not drive cars or even ride bikes. The case of the Amish dramatically illustrates the persistence of an old-fashioned subculture and its uneasy fit with the larger, dominant culture.
::美国亚文化的一个好例子是阿米什,他们主要居住在宾夕法尼亚州中部和俄亥俄州部分地区,远离电力和其他现代便利设施,包括汽车、拖拉机和电话。他们的生活方式日益受到非穆斯林企业和住宅扩展到阿米什领地的威胁(里夫金,2009年),里夫金,G.(2009年,2009年,1月8)。阿米什人从农场到小企业的群落,《纽约时报》,第B.3页。自1970年代以来,发展花费了宾夕法尼亚州兰开斯特郡的费用,那里有许多阿米什人居住着千英亩农田。一些阿米什人家庭搬到其他州,或者离开农庄去开办小企业,那里有人使用手机和计算机。尽管在现代发展方面有这些让步,但大部分阿米什人仍然像过去一样生活着现代发展。大多数人仍然不开车,甚至骑自行车。阿米什人的例子清楚地表明,古老的、亚基和不适应较大型文化的顽固性。

The Amish in the United States are a subculture that shuns electricity and many other modern conveniences.
::美国的阿米什人是一种亚文化,远离电力和许多其他现代便利。

A is a group whose values and beliefs directly oppose those of the larger culture and even reject it. Perhaps the most discussed example of a counterculture is the so-called youth counterculture of the 1960s, often referred to as the hippies but also comprising many other young people who did not fit the “tuned-out” image of the hippies and instead were politically engaged against U.S. government policy in Vietnam and elsewhere (Roszak, 1969). Roszak, T. (1969). The making of a counterculture . Garden City, NY: Doubleday. A contemporary example of a U.S. counterculture is the survivalists, whose extreme antigovernment views and hoarding of weapons fit them into the counterculture category (Mitchell, 2002). Mitchell, R. G., Jr. (2002). Dancing at Armageddon: Survivalism and chaos in modern times . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
::一个群体,其价值观和信仰直接与大文化的价值观和信仰相悖,甚至予以拒绝。也许讨论最多的反文化例子是所谓的1960年代青年反文化,通常被称为嬉皮士,但也包括许多其他年轻人,他们不符合嬉皮士的“调整”形象,相反,他们在政治上反对美国政府在越南和其他地方的政策(Roszak,1969年)。罗斯扎克,T.(1969年)。反文化的制作。花园城,纽约:双日。美国反文化的当代一个例子就是生存主义者,他们极端反政府的观点和囤积武器适合他们进入反文化类别(Mitchell,2002年)。Mitchell,R.G.,Jr.(2002年)。在Armageddeddon跳舞:现代的生存主义和混乱。芝加哥,IL:芝加哥大学出版社。

Key Takeaways
::密钥外出

Subcultures and countercultures are two types of alternative cultures that may exist amid the dominant culture.
::亚文化和反文化是主流文化中可能存在的两种替代文化。

Cultural relativism and ethnocentrism are often in tension, and it is sometimes difficult to determine whether it is appropriate to condemn behaviors that one’s own culture finds repugnant but that another culture considers appropriate.
::文化相对论和民族中心论往往处于紧张状态,有时很难确定谴责某种行为是否合适,因为一个人自己的文化会感到厌恶,而另一种文化则认为适当。

For Your Review
::供您审阅

This section discussed the eating of dog meat in some other cultures. Many Americans and Europeans condemn this practice. Do you think it is appropriate to condemn eating dog meat, or do you think such criticism violates cultural relativism and is thus inappropriate? Explain your answer.
::本节讨论了在其他一些文化中吃狗肉的问题。许多美国人和欧洲人谴责这种做法。你认为谴责吃狗肉是合适的吗? 或者你认为这种批评违反了文化相对主义,因此是不恰当的?请解释你的回答。

Section outline

General

Understanding the Nature of Culture ::理解文化的性质

Table 5: Aren’t My Best Cultural Skills (the ones that work so well for me at Home) Good Enough to Interact Successfully in Another Culture? Perhaps not. ::」表5:我的最佳文化技能(在家对我这么好)是否足够在另一文化中成功互动?

Key Takeaways ::密钥外出

For Your Review ::供您审阅

Understanding the Nature of Culture
::理解文化的性质

Table 5: Aren’t My Best Cultural Skills (the ones that work so well for me at Home) Good Enough to Interact Successfully in Another Culture? Perhaps not.
::」表5:我的最佳文化技能(在家对我这么好)是否足够在另一文化中成功互动?

Key Takeaways
::密钥外出

For Your Review
::供您审阅