Section outline

  • General

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  • 社会变革 社会变革

     Universal Generalizations
    ::普遍化

     All cultures change overtime.  The more culture traits a culture has, the faster the change within that culture.
    ::所有文化都改变加班时间,文化特性越高,文化内部的变化就越快。

    Cultural change most often will face opposition from people who do not want change to occur.
    ::文化变革往往会遭到不希望变革的人的反对。

    If cultural change is to occur a compromise has to be reached between opposing forces.
    ::要改变文化就必须在对立力量之间达成妥协。


    Objectives
    ::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标

    Identify and describe the main sources of social change.
    ::查明并描述社会变革的主要来源。

    Describe the factors that contribute to resistance to social change.
    ::说明导致抵制社会变革的因素。

    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    Identify ways in which society has changed from one generation to another.
    ::查明社会如何从一代人改变为另一代人。

    What are the main reasons for social change to occur?
    ::发生社会变革的主要原因是什么?

    What are some forms of resistance to social change?
    ::抵制社会变革的某些形式是什么?

    Can a society thrive without any social changes?
    ::一个社会能否在没有社会变革的情况下蓬勃发展?

    Has the expansion of the internet benefited or damaged American society?
    ::互联网的扩张是否有利于或破坏了美国社会?

    Factors of Change
    ::变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素 变化因素

    Physical Environment: Major changes in the physical environment are very compelling when they happen. The desert wastes of North Africa were once green and well populated. Climates change, soil erodes and lakes gradually turn into swamps and finally plains. A culture is greatly affected by such changes although sometimes they come about so slowly that they are largely unnoticed. Human misuse can bring very rapid changes in physical environment which in turn change the social and cultural life of a people. Deforestation brings land erosion and reduces rainfall. Much of the wasteland and desert land of the world is a testament to human ignorance and misuse. Environmental destruction has been at least a contributing factor in the fall of most great civilization. Many human groups throughout history have changed their physical environment through migration. In the primitive societies whose members are very directly dependent upon their physical environment migration to a different environment brings major changes in the culture. Civilization makes it easy to transport a culture and practice it in a new and different environment.
    ::自然环境:自然环境的重大变化发生时非常明显。北非的沙漠废物曾经一度是绿色的,而且人口众多。气候变化、土壤侵蚀和湖泊逐渐变成沼泽和最后平原。一种文化受到这种变化的极大影响,尽管有时变化非常缓慢,而且基本上无人注意。人类的滥用可以迅速改变自然环境,从而改变人民的社会和文化生活。森林砍伐带来土地侵蚀和减少降雨量。世界大部分荒地和荒地是人类无知和滥用的证明。环境破坏至少是造成人类最伟大文明衰落的一个因素。历史上许多人类群体通过移徙改变了自己的自然环境。在原始社会中,其成员非常直接依赖其自然环境迁移到不同的环境,因此文化发生了重大变化。文明化使得在新的和不同的环境中,一种文化和实践文化变得容易。

    Population changes: A population change is itself a social change but also becomes a casual factor in further social and cultural changes. When a thinly settled frontier fills up with people the hospitality pattern fades away, secondary group relations multiply, institutional structures grow more elaborate and many other changes follow. A stable population may be able to resist change but a rapidly growing population must migrate, improve its productivity or starve. Great historic migrations and conquests of the Huns, Vikings and many others have arisen from the pressure of a growing population upon limited resources. Migration encourages further change for it brings a group into a new environment subjects it to new social contacts and confronts it with new problems. No major population change leaves the culture unchanged.
    ::人口变化:人口变化本身是一种社会变化,但同时也成为进一步社会和文化变化的一个偶然因素;当一个人口稀少的边界充满了人民的款待模式消失,二级群体关系增多,体制结构更加完善,随之而来的其他变化也随之而来;稳定的人口也许能够抵御变化,但迅速增长的人口必须移徙、提高生产力或挨饿;由于人口不断增长对有限资源的压力,大量历史移徙和征服了洪人、维京人和许多其他人;移徙鼓励进一步变革,因为它使一个群体进入新的环境,使其接受新的社会联系,并面对新的问题;没有大型人口变化使文化保持不变。

    Isolation and Contact: Societies located at world crossroads have always been centers of change. Since most new traits come through diffusion, those societies in closest contact with other societies are likely to change most rapidly. In ancient times of overland transport, the land bridge connecting Asia, Africa and Europe was the centre of civilizing change. Later sailing vessels shifted the centre to the fringes of the Mediterranean Sea and still later to the north- west coast of Europe. Areas of greatest intercultural contact are the centers of change. War and trade have always brought intercultural contact and today tourism is adding to the contacts between cultures says Greenwood. Conversely isolated areas are centers of stability, conservatism and resistance to change. The most primitive tribes have been those who were the most isolated like the polar Eskimos or the Aranda of Central Australia.
    ::孤立与联系:位于世界十字路口的社会始终是变化的中心。由于大多数新特征是通过扩散形成的,与其他社会联系最密切的社会可能会发生最迅速的变化。在古老的陆地运输时代,连接亚洲、非洲和欧洲的陆地桥梁是文明变革的中心。后来,帆船将中心移到地中海边缘,后来又移到欧洲西北海岸。文化间接触最多的地区是变化的中心。战争与贸易总是带来文化间接触,今天,旅游业正在增加文化间接触。相反,孤立的地区是稳定、保守主义和抵制变革的中心。最原始的部落是那些最孤立的地区,如中澳大利亚的极地爱斯基摩人或阿兰达人。

    Social Structure : The structure of a society affects its rate of change in subtle and not immediately apparent ways. A society which vests great authority in the very old people as classical China did for centuries is likely to be conservative and stable. According to Ottenberg a society which stresses conformity and trains the individual to be highly responsive to the group such as the Zunis is less receptive to the change than a society like the Ileo who are highly individualistic and tolerate considerable cultural variability. A highly centralized bureaucracy is very favorable to the promotion and diffusion of change although bureaucracy has sometimes been used in an attempt to suppress change usually with no more than temporary success. When a culture is very highly integrated so that each element is rightly interwoven with all the others in a mutually interdependent system change is difficult and costly. But when the culture is less highly integrated so that work, play, family, religion and other activities are less dependent upon one another change is easier and more frequent. A tightly structured society wherein every person's roles, duties, privileges and obligations are precisely and rigidly defined is less given to changes than a more loosely structured society wherein roles, lines of authority, privileges and obligations are more open to individual rearrangement.
    ::社会结构:社会结构影响其微妙的、非直接可见的变革速度:社会结构影响其微妙的、非直接的变革速度。像古老的中国那样赋予非常年长的人很大权力的社会,很可能是保守的和稳定的。奥滕贝格认为,一个强调一致性和培训个人高度适应苏尼等群体的社会,比象伊莱奥这样的高度个性化和容忍相当大的文化变异的社会更难以接受变革。一个高度集中的官僚机构非常有利于促进和传播变革,尽管有时官僚机构被用来压制变革,通常只是暂时的成功。当文化高度融合,使每个要素在一个相互依存的系统变化中与所有其他要素适当地交织在一起时,困难和代价很高。但是当文化不那么高度融合,工作、游戏、家庭、宗教和其他活动就比较不那么容易和经常地依赖另一种变化。一个结构严谨的社会,即每个人的角色、义务、特权和义务都得到精确和严格的界定,其变化不如一个结构松散的社会,其角色、权力、特权和义务在后更开放于个人。

    Attitudes and Values: To people in developed nations and societies change is normal. Children there are socialized to anticipate and appreciate change. By contrast the Trobriand Islanders off the coast of New Guinea had no concept of change and did not even have any words in their language to express or describe change. Societies differ greatly in their general attitude toward change. People who revere the past and preoccupied with traditions and rituals will change slowly and unwillingly. When a culture has been relatively static for a long time the people are likely to assume that it should remain so indefinitely. They are intensely and unconsciously ethnocentric; they assume that their customs and techniques are correct and everlasting. A possible change is unlikely even to be seriously considered. Any change in such a society is likely to be too gradual to be noticed. A rapidly changing society has a different attitude toward change and this attitude is both cause and effect of the changes already taking place. Rapidly changing societies are aware of the social change. They are somewhat skeptical and critical of some parts of their traditional culture and will consider and experiment with innovations. Such attitudes powerfully stimulate the proposal and acceptance of changes by individuals within the society. Different groups within a locality or a society may show differing receptivity to change. Every changing society has its liberals and its conservatives. Literate and educated people tend to accept changes more readily than the illiterate and uneducated. Attitudes and values affect both the amount and the direction of social change. The ancient Greeks made great contributions to art and learning but contributed little to technology. No society has been equally dynamic in all aspects and its values determine in which area-art, music, warfare, technology, philosophy or religion it will be innovative. Cultural Factor influences the direction and character of technological change Culture not only influences our social relationships, it also influences the direction and character of technological change. It is not only our beliefs and social institutions must correspond to the changes in technology but our beliefs and social institutions determine the use to which the technological inventions will be put. The tools and techniques of technology are indifferent to the use we make of them. For example the atomic energy can be used for the production of deadly war weapons or for the production of economic goods that satisfy the basic needs of man. The factories can produce the armaments or necessaries of life. Steel and iron can be used for building warships or tractors. It is a culture that decides the purpose to which a technical invention must be put. Although technology has advanced geometrically in the recent past, technology alone does not cause social change. It does not by itself even cause further advances in technology. Social values play a dominant role here. It is the complex combination of technology and social values which produces conditions that encourage further technological change. For example the belief or the idea that human life must not be sacrificed for wants of medical treatment, contributed to the advancement in medical technology. Max Weber in his The Protestant Ethic and the spirit of Capitalism has made a classical attempt to establish a correlation between the changes in the religious outlook, beliefs and practices of the people on the one hand and their economic behavior on the other. He has observed capitalism could grow in the western societies to very great extent and not in the eastern countries like India and China. He has concluded that Protestantism with its practical ethics encouraged capitalism to grow in the west and hence industrial and economic advancement took place there. In the East, Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism and Islam on the other hand did not encourage capitalism. Thus cultural factors play a positive as well as negative role in bringing about technological change. Cultural factors such as habits, customs, traditions, conservatism, traditional values etc may resist the technological inventions. On the other hand factors such as breakdown in the unity of social values, the diversification of social institutions craving for the new thoughts, values etc may contribute to technological inventions. Technological changes do not take place on their own. They are engineered by men only. Technology is the creation of man. Men are always moved by ideas, thoughts, values, beliefs, morals and philosophies etc.These are the elements of culture. These sometimes decide or influence the direction in which technology undergoes change. Men are becoming more and more materialistic in their attitude. This change in the attitude and outlook is reflected in the technological field. Thus in order to lead a comfortable life and to minimize the manual labor man started inventing new techniques, machines, instruments and devices.
    ::态度和价值观:对于发达国家和社会的人民来说,历史和价值观是正常的; 儿童是社会化的,可以预测和欣赏变化; 儿童是社会化的价值观,可以预测和欣赏变化; 相比之下,新几内亚海岸沿岸的热带岛民没有变化的概念,甚至没有任何语言来表达或描述变化; 社会对变革的态度大不相同; 尊重过去并关注传统和仪式的人将缓慢和不愿意地改变; 当一种文化长期相对静止,人们可能认为它应该如此无限期地保持这种状态时; 儿童是社会化的价值观; 他们认为他们的习俗和技术是正确和永恒的; 可能的变化甚至不可能得到认真考虑。 这样一个社会的任何变化都有可能是进步的; 一个迅速变化的社会对变化的态度,即对变革的态度; 一个技术的起因和批评,对于他们的某些部分,他们可能会被人们认为应该无限期地认为应该保持这种状态; 他们认为他们的习俗和技术是正确和永恒的; 他们自己的习俗和技术; 他们的习惯和技巧是不会正确和永恒的; 一种甚至不会被认真考虑的改变的改变; 一种可能的改变; 这样的变化是, 一个社会运动的动力,它会决定着它的变化; 其运动的走向或运动的走向或运动的走向或运动的走向或运动的走向; 其运动的秩序的走向或运动的大小; 其运动的团体是它会改变它会改变它会改变它会改变它会改变它会改变它会改变它会改变。

    Technological Factors: The technological factors represent the conditions created by man which have a profound influence on his life. In the attempt to satisfy his wants, fulfill his needs and to make his life more comfortable man creates civilization. Technology is a byproduct of civilization .When the scientific knowledge is applied to the problems in life it becomes technology. Technology is a systematic knowledge which is put into practice that is to use tools and run machines to serve human purpose. Science and technology go together. In utilizing the products of technology man brings social change. The social effects of technology are far-reaching. According to Karl Marx even the formation of social relations and mental conceptions and attitudes are dependent upon technology. He has regarded technology as a sole explanation of social change.W.F Ogburn says technology changes society by changing our environment to which we in turn adapt. These changes are usually in the material environment and the adjustment that we make with these changes often modifies customs and social institutions. A single invention may have innumerable social effects. Radio for example has one of the most extreme expressions of the concern over the independence of technology is found in Jacques Ellul's 'the technological society'. Ellul claims that in modern industrial societies technologism has engulfed every aspect of social existence in much the same way Catholicism did in the middle ages. The loss of human freedom and the large-scale destruction of human beings are due to the increasing use of certain types of technology which has begun to threaten the life support systems of the earth as a whole.  
    ::技术因素:技术因素代表着人类创造的对其生活具有深刻影响的条件。技术因素代表着人类创造的、对其生活具有深刻影响的条件。根据卡尔·马克思,甚至社会关系、精神观念和态度的形成都取决于技术。他把技术视为社会变革的唯一解释。奥格本说,技术通过改变我们适应的环境而改变社会。这些变化通常发生在物质环境和我们因这些变化而作的调整中,这些变化往往改变习俗和社会体制。一个单一的发明可能带来无数的社会影响。例如,在利用技术人的产品时,技术的社会影响是深远的。根据卡尔·马克思的说法,甚至社会关系、精神观念和态度的形成也取决于技术。他把技术视为社会变革的唯一解释。W.F.Ogburn说,技术通过改变我们反过来适应的环境而改变社会的社会。这些变化通常发生在物质环境和我们随着这些变化而改变的习惯和社会体制。一个单一的发明可能会产生无数的社会影响。一个巨大的社会影响。例如,对技术独立的最极端表达着对技术独立性和态度取决于技术。在雅克·埃卢尔所发现的技术社会上越来越具有威胁的时代,在现代的科技中层中,人类社会上都认为,在不断丧失了人类的每一个文明社会上都有了。

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    Cultural Diffusion is when certain aspects of one culture are spread to another culture. An example in the US is the consumption of salsa. According to Wolfe and Ferland (2000), salsa was rarely consumed in the US, but in the mid 1990’s salsa consumption surpassed ketchup consumption and remains in the lead today with over $1 billion in annual sale.   Interestingly ketchup is still consumed as much as it was in the past. Salsa was added to the American diet, rather than adopted as a replacement to ketchup. Food is only one area where cultural diffusion can be readily observed. Clothing, music, television shows, movies, cars, technologies and many other aspects of cultures spread throughout the world today, diffusing cultures to a great extent.
    ::文化传播就是一种文化的某些方面传播到另一种文化。 美国的一个例子就是萨尔萨的消费。 据沃尔夫和费尔兰(2000年 ) (2000年 ) , 萨尔萨很少在美国消费,但在1990年代中期,萨尔萨的消费超过了番茄酱消费,今天仍然领先,年销售额超过10亿美元。 有趣的番茄酱仍然和过去一样被消费。 萨尔萨被添加到美国饮食中,而不是被采纳为番茄酱的替代物。 食品只是文化传播很容易观察到的领域之一。 服装、音乐、电视剧、电影、汽车、科技以及当今世界各地其他许多文化的传播,在很大程度上传播了文化。

    Once in the US immigrants realize that they have to make some adjustments in order to experience success in their daily interactions with members of the mainstream society. Assimilation is the process by which people from different cultures are acculturated and ultimately absorbed into the mainstream culture. In much of the US history of immigration throughout the 18th, 19th, and early 20th Centuries assimilation was more or less forced toward the deeply British-influenced mainstream culture. Forced Assimilation is where those in power in the mainstream refuse to allow immigrants to maintain their various cultures. Since the US immigration policy switched in favor of more non-European immigrants being allowed to migrate here, much of the assimilation is voluntary and considered permissible.   Permissible Assimilation permits newcomers to adapt to the mainstream culture naturally. 
    ::一旦进入美国,移民就会意识到他们必须做出一些调整,才能在与主流社会成员的日常交往中取得成功。 融合是来自不同文化的人被培养并最终融入主流文化的过程。 在整个18、19和20世纪初的美国移民史上,大部分百人同化或多或少是被迫进入深深受英国影响的主流文化。 强迫同化是主流中那些当权者拒绝让移民保持其各种文化的地方。 自从美国移民政策转向允许更多的非欧洲移民移民移民移民移民移居到这里以来,大部分同化是自愿的,被认为是允许的。 允许的同化允许新移民自然适应主流文化。


    Resistance to Change
    ::抵抗变革抵抗运动组织

    When cultural change occurs it is often faced with some degree of opposition.  Ethnocentrism is the tendency to judge others based on our own experiences. In this perspective our culture is right while cultures which differ from our own are wrong.  .
    ::当文化变革发生时,文化变革往往受到某种程度的反对。 民族中心主义是一种根据我们自己的经验来评判他人的倾向。 从这个角度讲,我们的文化是正确的,而不同于我们自己的文化则是错误的。

    Another form of opposition to cultural change is cultural lag.  Some cultural traits change quickly while others do not.  Cultural lag is when cultural traits take a considerable time to change.  Vested interest is another form of cultural resistance to change.  Vested interest is the resistance to change for fear of the unknown.  People resist change that poses a threat to their security or their way of life.  If a person is happy with their life, they will most likely resist any type of change.
    ::反对文化变革的另一种形式是文化落后,有些文化特征变化很快,而另一些则没有。文化落后是指文化特征需要相当长的时间才能改变。对改变的另一种文化阻力是人们的兴趣;对改变的阻力就是对未知者的恐惧。人们抵制对其安全或生活方式构成威胁的改变。如果一个人对自己的生活感到幸福,他们极有可能抵制任何类型的改变。