章节大纲

  • 常规

    全部折叠 展开全部

  • 社会内部群体

    Objectives
    ::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标

    Analyze the major features of primary and secondary groups.
    ::分析初等和中等群体的主要特征。

    Explain the purpose that groups fulfill.
    ::解释群体实现的目的。

    Distinguish between primary and secondary group relationships.
    ::区分初级和二级群体关系。

     

    Universal Generalizations
    ::普遍化

    Groups are the foundation of social life.
    ::群体是社会生活的基础。

    Every person in society participates in groups.
    ::社会中的每一个人都参加团体。

    Groups can be very small or extremely large. 
    ::群体可以是很小群体,也可以是很大群体。

    Groups can be very intimate or very formal.
    ::团体可以是非常亲密或非常正式的。

    All groups must perform several basic functions in order to exist.
    ::所有群体必须履行若干基本职能才能存在。

     

    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    What types of groups do people belong to?
    ::人民属于何种群体?

    Why do people choose to belong to groups?
    ::为什么人们选择属于群体?

    How different would one’s life be if one did not belong to any kind of
    ::如果一个人不属于任何一种社会阶层,那么一个人的生活会有什么不同呢?

     group?
    ::组 ?

    How do groups help stabilize society?
    ::团体如何帮助稳定社会?

     

    Social Groups
    ::社会团体

    Learning Objectives
    ::学习目标

    1. Describe how a social group differs from a social category or social aggregate.
      ::说明一个社会群体与社会类别或社会综合体有何不同。
    2. Distinguish a primary group from a secondary group.
      ::将初级群体与二级群体区分开来。
    3. Define a reference group and provide one example of such a group.
      ::界定一个咨商小组并提供这样一个小组的一个例子。
    4. Explain the importance of networks in a modern society.
      ::解释现代社会中网络的重要性。

    A consists of two or more people who regularly interact on the basis of mutual expectations and who share a common identity. It is easy to see from this definition that we all belong to many types of social groups: our families, our different friendship groups, the sociology class and other courses we attend, our workplaces, the clubs and organizations to which we belong, and so forth. Except in rare cases, it is difficult to imagine any of us living totally alone. Even people who live by themselves still interact with family members, coworkers, and friends and to this extent still have several group memberships.
    ::由两个或两个以上的人组成,他们经常在相互期望的基础上互动,具有共同的特性,从这个定义中很容易看出,我们都属于许多类型的社会群体:我们的家庭、我们不同的友谊团体、我们参加的社会学班和其他课程、我们的工作场所、我们所属的俱乐部和组织,等等。除了极少数情况外,很难想象我们中有人独自生活。甚至那些单独生活的人也仍然与家庭成员、同事和朋友发生互动,因此仍然有几个群体的成员。

    It is important here to distinguish social groups from two related concepts: social categories and social aggregates. A is a collection of individuals who have at least one attribute in common but otherwise do not necessarily interact. “Women” is an example of a social category. All women have at least one thing in common, their biological sex, even though they do not interact. “Asian Americans” is another example of a social category, as all Asian Americans have two things in common, their ethnic background and their residence in the United States, even if they do not interact or share any other similarities. As these examples suggest, gender and race and ethnicity are the basis for several social categories. Other common social categories are based on our religious preference, geographical residence, and social class.
    ::这里必须区分社会群体和两个相关概念:社会类别和社会总量。一个是至少有一个共同属性但不一定互动的个人的集合。“妇女”是一个社会类别的例子。所有妇女至少有一个共同点,即她们的生理性别,尽管她们没有互动。“亚裔美国人”是社会类别的另一个例子,因为所有亚裔美国人都有两个共同点,即他们的族裔背景和居住在美国,即使他们不相互交流或没有其他任何相似点。如这些例子所示,性别、种族和族裔是若干社会类别的基础。其他共同的社会类别是基于我们的宗教偏好、地理居住地和社会阶级。

    Falling between a social category and a social group is the , which is a collection of people who are in the same place at the same time but who otherwise do not necessarily interact, except in the most superficial of ways, or have anything else in common. The crowd at a sporting event and the audience at a movie or play are common examples of social aggregates. These collections of people are not a social category, because the people are together physically, and they are also not a group, because they do not really interact and do not have a common identity unrelated to being in the crowd or audience at that moment.
    ::社会类与社会群体之间是社会类与社会群体之间的交汇点,是那些同时在同一地点但除最肤浅的方式外不一定互动或有其他共同点的人的集合。 体育赛事的人群和电影或剧场的观众是社会集合的常见例子。 这些人群不是社会类,因为人们身体上在一起,他们也不是群体,因为他们并不真正互动,也没有与当时在人群或观众中无关的共同身份。

    With these distinctions laid out, let’s return to our study of groups by looking at the different types of groups sociologists have delineated.
    ::透过研究社会学家所划分的不同类型的社会团体,

     

    Primary and Secondary Groups
    ::初等和中等群体

    A common distinction is made between primary groups and secondary groups. A is usually small, characterized by extensive interaction and strong emotional ties, and endures over time. Members of such groups care a lot about each other and identify strongly with the group. Indeed, their membership in a primary group gives them much of their social identity. Charles Horton Cooley, whose looking-glass-self concept was discussed in the previous chapter, called these groups primary, because they are the first groups we belong to and because they are so important for social life. The family is the primary group that comes most readily to mind, but small peer friendship groups, whether they are your high school friends, an urban street gang, or middle-aged adults who get together regularly, are also primary groups.
    ::初等群体和次等群体之间有着共同的区别。 A通常是小群体,其特点是广泛互动和强烈的情感联系,而且长期存在。 这些群体的成员互相关心,与群体有强烈的认同。 事实上,他们在初级群体中的成员资格给了他们许多社会身份。 Charles Horton Cooley在前一章中讨论了其外观-玻璃自我概念,称这些群体为首要群体,因为他们是我们属于的第一个群体,并且对社会生活如此重要。 家庭是人们最容易想到的主要群体,但小同伴友好群体,无论是你的高中朋友、城市街头帮派,还是经常在一起的中年成年人,也是主要群体。

    Although a primary group is usually small, somewhat larger groups can also act much like primary groups. Here athletic teams, fraternities, and sororities come to mind. Although these groups are larger than the typical family or small circle of friends, the emotional bonds their members form are often quite intense. In some workplaces, coworkers can get to know each other very well and become a friendship group in which the members discuss personal concerns and interact outside the workplace. To the extent this happens, small groups of coworkers can become primary groups (Elsesser & Peplau, 2006; Marks, 1994). Elsesser, K., & Peplau L. A. (2006). The glass partition: Obstacles to cross-sex friendships at work. Human Relations, 59 , 1077–1100; Marks, S. R. (1994). Intimacy in the public realm: The case of co-workers. Social Forces, 72, 843–858.
    ::虽然一个主要群体通常规模较小,但规模稍大一些的群体也可以像主要群体一样行事。在这里,运动队、兄弟会和联谊会被人们想到了。虽然这些团体比典型的家庭或小朋友圈还大,但其成员的情感纽带往往相当紧张。在某些工作场所,同事可以很好地相互了解,成为友好团体,其成员在其中讨论个人关切和在工作场所外互动。在这样的情况下,小型同事团体可以成为主要团体(Elsesser & Peplau,2006年;Marks,1994年)。Elsesser,K., & Peplau L.A.(2006年)。玻璃分割:工作上跨性友谊的障碍。人际关系,59,1077-1100;Marks, S.R.(1994年)。公共领域的亲密关系:同事的情况。社会力量,72,843-858。

    Our primary groups play significant roles in so much that we do. Survey evidence bears this out for the family. shows that an overwhelming majority of Americans say their family is “very important” in their lives. Would you say the same for your family?
    ::我们的主要群体在很多方面扮演着重要的角色,以至于我们做了很多。 调查证据证明这对家庭来说是有道理的。 调查表明,绝大多数美国人说他们的家庭在他们生活中“非常重要 ” 。 你对你的家庭会说同样的话吗?

    Percentage of Americans Who Say Their Family Is Very Important, Quite Important, Not Too Important, or Not at All Important in Their Lives
    ::说自己家庭非常重要、非常重要、并不太重要或生命中不重要的美国人的百分比

    Source: Data from World Values Survey, 2002.
    ::资料来源:2002年世界价值调查数据。

    Ideally, our primary groups give us emotional warmth and comfort in good times and bad and provide us an identity and a strong sense of loyalty and belonging. Our primary group memberships are thus important for such things as our happiness and mental health. Much research, for example, shows rates of suicide and emotional problems are lower among people involved with social support networks such as their families and friends than among people who are pretty much alone (Maimon & Kuhl, 2008). Maimon, D., & Kuhl, D. C. (2008). Social control and youth suicidality: Situating Durkheim’s ideas in a multilevel framework. American Sociological Review, 73, 921–943. However, our primary group relationships may also not be ideal, and, if they are negative ones, they may cause us much mental and emotional distress, as women victimized by domestic violence will attest. In fact, the family as a primary group is the source of much physical and sexual violence committed against women and children (Gosselin, 2010) Gosselin, D. K. (2010).
    ::理想的情况是,我们的主要群体在美好和坏的时候给我们带来情感温暖和慰藉,并给我们提供身份和强烈的忠诚和归属感。因此,我们的主要群体成员资格对于幸福和心理健康非常重要。 比如,许多研究表明,参与社会支持网络的人,例如其家人和朋友的自杀和情感问题发生率低于那些几乎孤独的人(Maimon & Kuhl,2008年;Maimon, D., & Kuhl, D. C.(2008年);社会控制和青年自杀性:将Durkheim的想法置于多层次的框架之下。 然而,我们的主要群体关系可能也不理想,如果这些关系是负面的,则会给我们带来很大的精神和情感痛苦,因为受家庭暴力伤害的妇女会证明这一点。 事实上,家庭作为一个主要群体是许多针对妇女和儿童的身体和性暴力的根源(Gosselin,2010年);Gosselin, D. K. (2010年)。

    Although primary groups are the most important ones in our lives, we belong to many more , which are groups that are larger and more impersonal and exist, often for a relatively short time, to achieve a specific purpose. Secondary group members feel less emotionally attached to each other than do primary group members and do not identify as much with their group nor feel as loyal to it. This does not mean secondary groups are unimportant, as society could not exist without them, but they still do not provide the potential emotional benefits for their members that primary groups ideally do. The sociology class for which you are reading this book is an example of a secondary group, as are the clubs and organizations on your campus to which you might belong. Other secondary groups include religious, business, governmental, and civic organizations. In some of these groups, members get to know each other better than in other secondary groups, but their emotional ties and intensity of interaction remain much weaker than in primary groups.
    ::虽然主要群体是我们生活中最重要的群体,但是我们属于更多的群体,这些群体更大,更非人性化,而且为了达到特定目的而存在,往往在较短的时间内存在; 次要群体成员比主要群体成员对彼此的感情更不那么亲近,不认同他们群体,也不忠于他们; 这并不意味着次要群体并不重要,因为没有他们社会是不可能存在的,但是他们仍然没有为他们最理想的群体提供潜在的情感利益。 你正在阅读这本书的社会学课是第二群体的一个范例,你可能加入的俱乐部和组织也是如此。 其他次要群体包括宗教、商业、政府和公民组织。在其中一些群体中,成员比其他次要群体更了解对方,但他们的情感联系和互动强度仍然比主要群体要弱得多。

    Image result for secondary group sociology

    A secondary group is larger and more impersonal than a primary group and may exist for a relatively short time to achieve a specific purpose. The students in any one of your college courses constitute a secondary group.
    ::中学生群体比初等群体大,人性化程度更高,为了达到特定目的,可能存在较短的时间,而任何一种大学课程的学生都构成中学生群体。

    http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.peoi.net/Courses/Coursesen/socfwk/Resources
    ::http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.peoi.net/Courses/Consursen/socfwk/Resources/

    Reference Groups
    ::参考小组

    Primary and secondary groups can act both as our or as groups that set a standard for guiding our own behavior and attitudes. The family we belong to obviously affects our actions and views, as, for example, there were probably times during your adolescence when you decided not to do certain things with your friends to avoid disappointing or upsetting your parents. On the other hand, your friends regularly acted during your adolescence as a reference group, and you probably dressed the way they did or did things with them, even against your parents’ wishes, precisely because they were your reference group. Some of our reference groups are groups to which we do not belong but to which we nonetheless want to belong. A small child, for example, may dream of becoming an astronaut and dress like one and play like one. Some high school students may not belong to the “cool” clique in school but may still dress like the members of this clique, either in hopes of being accepted as a member or simply because they admire the dress and style of its members.
    ::初等和中等群体既可以作为我们,也可以作为制定指导我们自身行为和态度的标准的团体。我们属于的家庭显然会影响我们的行动和观点,例如,在你的青春期中,也许有几次你决定不与朋友做某些事情以避免令人失望或令你的父母不安。另一方面,你的朋友在你的青春期中经常作为参照群体行事,甚至可能穿戴他们的做法或做一些事情,甚至违反你父母的意愿,正因为他们是你的咨商群体。我们的一些咨商群体是我们不属于的,但我们仍然希望属于的。例如,一个小孩子可能梦想成为宇航员,穿成一个样子,玩一个样子。一些高中学生可能不属于学校的“酷”俱乐部,但可能仍然穿得像这个俱乐部的成员,要么希望被接受为会员,要么只是因为他们欣赏其成员的服装和风格。

    Samuel Stouffer and colleagues (Stouffer et al., 1949) Stouffer, S., et al. (1949). The American soldier: Adjustment during army life . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. demonstrated the importance of reference groups in a well-known study of American soldiers during World War II. This study sought to determine why some soldiers were more likely than others to have low morale. Surprisingly, Stouffer found that the actual, “objective” nature of their living conditions affected their morale less than whether they felt other soldiers were better or worse off than they were. Even if their own living conditions were fairly good, they were likely to have low morale if they thought other soldiers were doing better. Another factor affecting their morale was whether they thought they had a good chance of being promoted. Soldiers in units with high promotion rates were, paradoxically, more pessimistic about their own chances of promotion than soldiers in units with low promotion rates. Evidently the former soldiers were dismayed by seeing so many other men in their unit getting promoted and felt worse off as a result. In each case, Stouffer concluded, the soldiers’ views were shaped by their perceptions of what was happening in their reference group of other soldiers. They felt deprived relative to the experiences of the members of their reference group and adjusted their views accordingly. The concept of relative deprivation captures this process.
    ::Samuel Stouffer和同事(Stuffer等人,1949年)Stouffer,S.等人(1949年)。美国士兵:军队生活期间的调整。普林斯顿,NJ:普林斯顿大学出版社(普林斯顿:普林斯顿大学出版社)展示了参考团体在二战期间美国士兵著名研究中的重要性。这项研究试图确定为什么一些士兵比其他士兵更可能士气低。令人惊讶的是,Stouffer发现,他们生活条件的实际“客观”性质对其士气的影响比他们认为其他士兵比他们更优秀或更差。即使他们自己的生活条件相当好,如果他们认为其他士兵做得更好,他们也有可能士气低。影响他们士气的另一个因素是他们是否认为他们有被提升的好机会。升级率高的士兵对自己晋升机会比晋升率低的士兵更悲观。 令人惊讶的是,前士兵看到他们的部队中许多其他男子晋升得比他们更好,感到情况更糟糕。在每次提到他们自己的部队时,他们都会感到他们的相对的印象是他们的看法。这样看待他们的士兵的看法。因此,他们认为,他们的士兵的相对的这种看法是他们的看法被调整了。

    In-Groups and Out-Groups
    ::集团内和集团外

    Members of primary and some secondary groups feel loyal to those groups and take pride in belonging to them. We call such groups . Fraternities, sororities, sports teams, and juvenile gangs are examples of in-groups. Members of an in-group often end up competing with members of another group for various kinds of rewards. This other group is called an . The competition between in-groups and out-groups is often friendly, as among members of intramural teams during the academic year when they vie in athletic events. Sometimes, however, in-group members look down their noses at out-group members and even act very hostilely toward them. Rival fraternity members at several campuses have been known to get into fights and trash each other’s houses. More seriously, street gangs attack each other, and hate groups such as skinheads and the Ku Klux Klan have committed violence against people of color, Jews, and other individuals they consider members of out-groups. As these examples make clear, in-group membership can promote very negative attitudes toward the out-groups with which the in-groups feel they are competing. These attitudes are especially likely to develop in times of rising unemployment and other types of economic distress, as in-group members are apt to blame out-group members for their economic problems (Olzak, 1992). Olzak, S. (1992). The dynamics of ethnic competition and conflict . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
    ::初等和一些次要群体的成员感到忠于这些群体,对属于这些群体感到自豪。我们称这些群体为团体。我们称这些团体为团体为团体内成员。友谊会、联谊会、体育队和青少年帮派为团体内成员的例子。一个团体内成员往往最后与另一团体的成员竞争各种奖赏。另一个团体称为团体内和集团外集团之间的竞争往往很友好,就像在学年内团队成员参加体育赛事时那样。但有时,集团内成员低头看着集团内成员,甚至对他们采取非常敌对的行动。一些校园内的争斗兄弟情谊会成员经常参加战斗和相互残害对方的房屋。更严重的是,街头帮派相互攻击,以及诸如光头党和Ku Klus Klan等仇恨团体对有色人、犹太人和他们认为集团外集团内的其他人实施暴力。这些例子清楚地表明,集团内成员可能会对本集团内成员感到的反面态度,甚至对本集团内的集团内部冲突有激烈的反面态度。1992年的Slus Klan集团内,它们认为它们正在竞相争夺对方的货币税制集团内的货币集团内部问题。

    Networks
    ::网络网络

    These days in the job world we often hear of “networking,” or taking advantage of your connections with people who have connections to other people who can help you land a job. You do not necessarily know these “other people” who ultimately can help you, but you do know the people who know them. Your ties to the other people are weak or nonexistent, but your involvement in this network may nonetheless help you find a job.
    ::这些天我们经常听到“网络”或利用你与能帮助你找到工作的其他人的联系。你不一定了解这些“其他人”最终能够帮助你,但你确实了解那些了解他们的人。你与其他人的联系是薄弱的或不存在的,但你参与这个网络也许能帮助你找到工作。

    Modern life is increasingly characterized by such , or the totality of relationships that link us to other people and groups and through them to still other people and groups. Some of these relationships involve strong bonds, while other relationships involve weak bonds (Granovetter, 1983). Granovetter, M. (1983). The strength of weak ties: A network theory revisited. Sociological Theory, 1, 201–233. Facebook and other Web sites have made possible networks of a size unimaginable just a decade ago. Networks are important for many things, including getting advice, borrowing small amounts of money, and finding a job. When you need advice or want to borrow $5 or $10, whom do you turn to? The answer is undoubtedly certain members of your networks—your friends, family, and so forth.
    ::现代生活日益以这种关系为特征,或者是连接我们与其他人和群体并通过他们与其他人和群体的整体关系。 其中一些关系涉及牢固的纽带,而另一些关系则涉及薄弱的债券(Granovter,1983年)。 Granovter, M.(1983年)。 薄弱的纽带的力量:重新审视网络理论。 社会学理论,1, 201-233。 脸书和其他网站使网络有可能成为仅仅十年前无法想象的大小的网络。 网络对于许多事情非常重要,包括获得建议、借入少量资金和寻找工作。 当你需要咨询或想要借入5或10美元时,你向谁求助?答案无疑是你们网络的某些成员 — — 你的朋友、家人等等。

    The indirect links you have to people through your networks can help you find a job or even receive better medical care. For example, if you come down with a serious condition such as cancer, you would probably first talk with your primary care physician, who would refer you to one or more specialists whom you do not know and who have no connections to you through other people you know. That is, they are not part of your network. Because the specialists do not know you and do not know anyone else who knows you, they are likely to treat you very professionally, which means, for better or worse, impersonally.
    ::通过网络与人们的间接联系可以帮助您找到工作,甚至获得更好的医疗护理。例如,如果您患有癌症等严重疾病,您可能会首先与初级护理医生交谈,后者会将您介绍给一位或多位你不认识的专家,并通过其他您认识的人与您没有联系。也就是说,他们不属于您网络的一部分。因为专家不了解您,也不了解其他人,因此他们可能会非常专业地对待您,这意味着无论好坏,他们都是个性化地对待您。

    Now suppose you have some nearby friends or relatives who are physicians. Because of their connections with other nearby physicians, they can recommend certain specialists to you and perhaps even get you an earlier appointment than your primary physician could. Because these specialists realize you know physicians they know, they may treat you more personally than otherwise. In the long run, you may well get better medical care from your network through the physicians you know. People lucky enough to have such connections may thus be better off medically than people who do not.
    ::现在假设你有一些附近的朋友或亲戚是医生。由于他们与其他附近的医生有联系,他们可以推荐一些专家给你,甚至可以比你的初级医生更早给你预约。因为这些专家意识到你认识他们认识的医生,因此他们可以比其他医生更亲切地对待你。从长远看,你最好通过你认识的医生从网络中获得更好的医疗护理。因此,幸运地拥有这种联系的人在医疗上可能比没有这种联系的人要好。

    But let’s look at this last sentence. What kinds of people have such connections? What kinds of people have friends or relatives who are physicians? All other things being equal, if you had two people standing before you, one employed as a vice president in a large corporation and the other working part-time at a fast-food restaurant, which person do you think would be more likely to know a physician or two personally? Your answer is probably the corporate vice president. The point is that factors such as our social class and occupational status, our race and ethnicity, and our gender affect how likely we are to be involved in networks that can help us get jobs, good medical care, and other advantages. As just one example, a study of three working-class neighborhoods in New York City—one white, one African American, and one Latino—found that white youths were more involved through their parents and peers in job referral networks than youths in the other two neighborhoods and thus were better able to find jobs, even if they had been arrested for delinquency (Sullivan, 1989). Sullivan, M. (1989). Getting paid: Youth crime and work in the inner city . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. This study suggests that even if we look at people of different races and ethnicities in roughly the same social class, whites have an advantage over people of color in the employment world.
    ::让我们看看这最后一句话。什么样的人有这样的联系?什么样的人有这样的朋友或亲戚是医生?什么样的人有这样的联系?什么样的人有这样的朋友或亲戚是医生?其他所有事情都是平等的,如果你有两个人站在你面前,一个是大公司的副总裁,另一个是在快餐餐厅兼职工作,你认为哪个人更可能认识医生或两个个人?你的答复可能是公司副总裁。关键在于我们的社会阶级和职业地位、我们的种族和族裔以及我们的性别等因素影响我们加入能够帮助我们找到工作、良好的医疗照顾和其他好处的网络的可能性。所有其它事情都是平等的。仅举一个例子,对纽约市三个工人阶级社区——一个是白人,一个是非裔美国人,另一个是拉丁美洲人——的研究发现,白人青年通过父母和同龄人参与转介网络的程度比其他两个社区的青年要大得多,因此,即使他们因为犯罪而被捕,也更容易找到工作(Sulivan,1989年)。Sullivan,M.(1989年),获得报酬。获得报酬的有的是纽约市三个工人阶级社区——一个白人、一个白人、一个非裔美国人、一个黑人、一个黑人城市中的年轻人。

    A network is the totality of relationships that link us to other people and groups and through them to still other people and groups. Our involvement in certain networks can bring certain advantages, including better medical care if one’s network includes a physician or two.
    ::网络是连接我们与其他人和群体并通过他们与其他人和群体的整体关系。 我们参与某些网络可以带来某些好处,包括更好的医疗护理,如果一个人的网络包括一名或两名医生的话。

    Gender also matters in the employment world. In many businesses, there still exists an “old boys’ network,” in which male executives with job openings hear about male applicants from male colleagues and friends. Male employees already on the job tend to spend more social time with their male bosses than do their female counterparts. These related processes make it more difficult for females than for males to be hired and promoted (Barreto, Ryan, & Schmitt, 2009). Barreto, M., Ryan, M. K., & Schmitt, M. T. (Eds.). (2009). The glass ceiling in the 21st century: Understanding barriers to gender equality . Washington, DC: American Psychologial Association. To counter these effects and to help support each other, some women form networks where they meet, talk about mutual problems, and discuss ways of dealing with these problems. An example of such a network is The Links, Inc., a community service group of 12,000 professional African American women whose name underscores the importance of networking ( ). Its members participate in 270 chapters in 42 states, Washington, DC, and the Bahamas. Every 2 years, more than 2,000 Links members convene for a national assembly at which they network, discuss the problems they face as professional women of color, and consider fund-raising strategies for the causes they support.

    Key Takeaways
    ::密钥外出

    • Groups are a key building block of social life but can also have negative consequences.
      ::群体是社会生活的重要组成部分,但也可能产生消极后果。
    • Primary groups are generally small and include intimate relationships, while secondary groups are larger and more impersonal.
      ::初级群体一般很小,包括亲密关系,而二级群体则更大,更非人性化。
    • Reference groups provide a standard for guiding and evaluating our attitudes and behaviors.
      ::咨商小组为指导和评估我们的态度和行为提供了标准。
    • Social networks are increasingly important in modern life and involvement in such networks may have favorable consequences for many aspects of one’s life.
      ::社会网络在现代生活中日益重要,参与这种网络可能对一个人生活的许多方面产生有利的后果。

    For Your Review
    ::供您审阅

    1. Briefly describe one reference group that has influenced your attitudes or behavior and explain why it had this influence on you.
      ::简单描述一下影响你态度或行为的参考群体,并解释为什么它会影响你。
    2. Briefly describe an example of when one of your social networks proved helpful to you (or describe an example when a social network helped someone you know).
      ::简单描述一下一个例子,说明你们的一个社交网络何时证明对你们有帮助(或描述一个社交网络帮助你们认识的人的例子)。
    3. List at least five secondary groups to which you now belong and/or to which you previously belonged.
      ::列出您现在所属和/或以前所属的至少五个次要组别。