Section outline

  • General

    Collapse all Expand all

  • 正式组织的结构

    Objectives
    ::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标

    Explain how bureaucracies are structured.
    ::解释官僚机构的结构。

    Analyze the effectiveness of bureaucracies.
    ::分析官僚机构的有效性。


    Universal Generalization
    ::普遍化

    Structured bureaucracies are created to achieve certain endeavors.
    ::建立结构化官僚机构是为了实现某些努力。

    Bureaucracies have existed in the ancient worlds of Egypt, China, and Rome.
    ::埃及、中国和罗马等古代世界存在官僚主义。

    Bureaucracies were created to rationally organize groups to complete a
    ::创立了官僚机构,以便合理组织各种团体,完成

    set of goals.
    ::一套目标。


    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    How are bureaucracies structured?
    ::官僚机构的结构如何?

    How effective are bureaucracies?
    ::官僚机构如何有效?

    What are the advantages and disadvantages of formal organizations?
    ::正式组织的利弊何在?

    What are the main characteristics of Max Weber’s model of bureaucracies?
    ::马克斯·韦伯的官僚模式的主要特点是什么?

    Describe the types of relationships found in formal organizations?
    ::描述在正式组织中发现的关系类型?

    Learning Objectives
    ::学习目标

    1. Describe the three types of formal organizations.
      ::说明三类正式组织。
    2. List the defining characteristics of bureaucracies.
      ::列出官僚机构的定义特征。
    3. Discuss any two disadvantages of bureaucracies.
      ::讨论官僚机构的任何两个缺点。
    4. Explain Michels’s iron law of oligarchy.
      ::解释米歇尔(Michels)的寡头统治铁律。

    A complaint of modern life is that society is dominated by large and impersonal secondary organizations. From schools to businesses to healthcare to government, these organizations, referred to as formal organizations , are highly bureaucratized. Indeed, all formal organizations are, or likely will become, bureaucracies . A bureaucracy is an ideal type of formal organization. Ideal doesn’t mean “best” in its sociological usage; it refers to a general model that describes a collection of characteristics, or a type that could describe most examples of the item under discussion. For example, if your professor were to tell the class to picture a car in their minds, most students will picture a car that shares a set of characteristics: four wheels, a windshield, and so on. Everyone’s car will be somewhat different, however. Some might picture a two-door sports car while others picture an SUV. The general idea of the car that everyone shares is the ideal type. We will discuss bureaucracies as an ideal type of organization.
    ::现代生活的一个抱怨是社会由大型和非个人性的中等组织主宰。 从学校到企业到医疗保健到政府,这些组织,被称为正式组织,都是高度官僚化的。 事实上,所有正式组织都已经或有可能成为官僚化。 官僚主义是一种理想的正式组织类型。 理想并不表示社会学用法的“最佳 ” ;它指的是描述特征集的一般模式,或可以描述所讨论项目的大多数例子的类型。 比如,如果你的教授要告诉班级在他们的头脑中描绘一辆车,大多数学生会想象一辆车具有一套特点:四轮车、挡风玻璃等等。 然而,每个人的车都会有所不同。 有些人可能想象两门运动车,而其他人则会想象一辆SUV。 人人都拥有的汽车的一般概念是理想的类型。 我们将讨论官僚主义作为理想的组织类型。

    Modern societies are filled with , or large secondary groups that follow explicit rules and procedures to achieve specific goals and tasks. Max Weber (1864–1920), one of the founders of sociology, recognized long ago that as societies become more complex, their procedures for accomplishing tasks rely less on traditional customs and beliefs and more on rational (which is to say rule-guided and impersonal) methods of decision making. The development of formal organizations, he emphasized, allowed complex societies to accomplish their tasks in the most efficient way possible (Weber, 1921/1978). Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society: An outline of interpretive sociology (G. Roth and C. Wittich, Eds.). Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. (Original work published 1921) Today we cannot imagine how any modern, complex society could run without formal organizations such as businesses and health-care institutions.
    ::现代社会充满了按照明确的规则和程序实现具体目标和任务的大型二级群体。 社会学的创始人之一马克斯·韦伯(Max Weber (1864-1920年)早就认识到,随着社会变得更加复杂,他们完成任务的程序不那么依赖传统习惯和信仰,而更多地依赖理性(即规则引导和非人性)的决策方法。 他强调,正规组织的发展允许复杂社会以尽可能最有效的方式完成任务(Weber, 1921/1978年)。Weber, M. (1978年)。经济和社会:解释社会学的概要(G. Roth和C. Witich, Eds. ) 。 加州大学伯克利:加利福尼亚大学出版社(1921年出版的《原件》工作)今天,我们无法想象没有企业和保健机构等正规组织,任何现代、复杂的社会如何运作。

    Types of Formal Organizations
    ::正式组织类型类型

    Sociologist Amitai Etzioni (1975) Etzioni, A. (1975). A comparative analysis of complex organizations . New York, NY: Free Press. developed a popular typology of organizations based on how they induce people to join them and keep them as members once they do join. His three types are utilitarian, normative, and coercive organizations.
    ::Amitai Etzioni社会学家Amitai Etzioni(1975年),Etzioni,A.(1975年),对复杂组织的比较分析,纽约,纽约:自由新闻社。根据人们加入后如何吸引他们加入并保留他们的会员身份,形成了一种受欢迎的组织类型。他的三种类型是实用性、规范性和胁迫性组织。

    (also called remunerative organizations ) provide an income or some other personal benefit. Business organizations, ranging from large corporations to small Mom-and-Pop grocery stores, are familiar examples of utilitarian organizations. Colleges and universities are utilitarian organizations not only for the people who work at them but also for their students, who certainly see education and a diploma as important tangible benefits they can gain from higher education.
    ::商业组织,从大公司到小型百货杂货店,都是实用性组织的常见例子。 学院和大学都是实用性组织,不仅针对在它们工作的人,而且针对学生,他们当然认为教育和文凭是他们可以从高等教育中获得的重要实际好处。

    Sociology Making a Difference
    ::改变社会社会学

    Big-Box Stores and the McDonaldization of Society
    ::大宗商店和社会上市化

    In many towns across the country during the last decade or so, activists have opposed the building of Wal-Mart and other “big-box” stores. They have had many reasons for doing so: the stores hurt local businesses; they do not treat their workers well; they are environmentally unfriendly. No doubt some activists also think the stores are all the same and are a sign of a distressing trend in the retail world.
    ::过去十年左右,全国许多城镇的活跃分子反对建造沃尔玛和其他“大箱”商店。 他们有很多理由这样做:商店伤害当地企业;他们不善待工人;他们对环境不友好。 毫无疑问,一些活跃分子也认为商店都是一样的,是零售业中令人沮丧趋势的标志。

    Sociologist George Ritzer (2008) Ritzer, G. (2008). The McDonaldization of society . Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. coined the term McDonaldization to describe this trend involving certain kinds of utilitarian organizations, to use a term from the chapter. His insights help us understand its advantages and disadvantages and thus help us to evaluate the arguments of big-box critics and the counterarguments of their proponents.
    ::社会学家George Ritzer(2008年)Ritzer(2008年),G.(2008年),《社会本土化》,《千橡树》,CA:Pine Forge Press》,创建了“本土化”一词来描述涉及某些实用组织的趋势,用一章中的某个词来形容。他的洞察力帮助我们理解其利弊,从而帮助我们评估大箱批评者的论点及其支持者的反驳。

    You have certainly eaten, probably too many times, at McDonald’s, Burger King, Subway, KFC, and other fast-food restaurants. Ritzer says that these establishments share several characteristics that account for their popularity but that also represent a disturbing trend.
    ::在麦当劳、汉堡王、地铁、KFC和其他快餐餐馆,你肯定吃过很多次了。 里泽尔说,这些商店具有一些共同的特点,这些特点反映了它们的受欢迎程度,但也代表着一种令人不安的趋势。

    First, the food at all McDonald’s restaurants is the same, as is the food at all Burger King restaurants or at any other fast-food chain. If you go to McDonald’s in Maine, you can be very sure that you will find the same food that you would find at a McDonald’s in San Diego on the other side of the country. You can also be sure that the food will taste the same, even though the two McDonald’s are more than 3,000 miles apart. Ritzer uses the terms predictability and uniformity to refer to this similarity of McDonald’s restaurants across the country.
    ::首先,所有麦当劳餐馆的食物都是一样的,所有汉堡王餐馆或任何其他快餐连锁店的食物都是一样的。 如果你去缅因麦当劳,你可以非常肯定你能找到与国内另一边圣地亚哥麦当劳一样的食物。 你也可以肯定食品的味道是一样的,即使两家麦当劳相距超过3000英里。 里泽用可预测性和一致性术语来形容全国麦当劳餐厅的相似性。

    Second, at any McDonald’s the food is exactly the same size and weight. Before it was cooked, the burger you just bought was the same size and weight as the burger the person in front of you bought. This ensures that all McDonald’s customers receive the identical value for their money. Ritzer calls this identical measurement of food calculability .
    ::其次,在任何麦当劳,食品的大小和重量完全相同。 在烹饪之前,你刚刚购买的汉堡与在你前面的人购买的汉堡一样大小和重量。 这确保麦当劳的所有客户都能得到同样价值的钱。 里策尔称这是对食品计算能力的同样计量。

    Third, McDonald’s and other restaurants like it are fast. They are fast because they are efficient. As your order is taken, it is often already waiting for you while keeping warm. Moreover, everyone working at McDonald’s has a specific role to play, and this division of labor contributes to the efficiency of McDonald’s, as Ritzer characterized its operations.
    ::第三,麦当劳和其他像麦当劳那样的餐馆是快速的。 它们是快速的,因为它们是高效的。 随着您的订单被下达,它往往已经在等待您,同时保持温暖。 此外,在麦当劳工作的每个人都可以发挥特定的作用,这种分工有助于麦当劳的效率,正如里泽所描述的那样。

    Fourth and last, McDonald’s is automated as much as possible. Machines help McDonald's employees make and serve shakes, fries, and the other food. If McDonald’s could use a robot to cook its burgers and fries, it probably would.
    ::第四也是最后一点,麦当劳是尽可能自动化的。 机器帮助麦当劳的员工制造和提供奶昔、薯条和其他食品。 如果麦当劳可以使用机器人做汉堡和薯条,那么它可能也会这样做。

    To Ritzer, McDonald’s is a metaphor for the overrationalization of society, and he fears that the McDonaldization of society , as he calls it, is occurring. This means that society is becoming increasingly uniform, predictable, calculable, efficient, and automated beyond the fast-food industry. For example, just 50 years ago there were no shopping malls and few national chain stores other than Sears, JCPenney, and a few others. Now we have malls across the country, and many of them have the same stores. We also have national drugstore chains, such as Rite Aid or Walgreens, that look fairly similar across the country.
    ::对里泽尔来说,麦当劳是社会过度理性化的隐喻,他担心正在发生他所称的社会上市化。 这意味着社会正在变得越来越统一、可预测、可计算、高效和自动化,超越快餐产业。 比如,就在50年前,除了西尔斯、JCPenney和其他几个国家连锁商店之外,没有购物中心和国家连锁商店。 现在,我们在全国有商场,其中许多有相同的商店。 我们还有全国药品店,比如瑞特援助或沃尔格林,它们在全国各地看起来相当相似。

    This uniformity has its advantages. For example, if you are traveling and enter a McDonald’s or Rite Aid, you already know exactly what you will find and probably even where to find it. But uniformity also has its disadvantages. To take just one problem, the national chains have driven out small, locally owned businesses that are apt to offer more personal attention. And if you want to buy a product that a national chain does not carry, it might be difficult to find it.
    ::这种统一性有其优点。 比如,如果你旅行和进入麦当劳或里特援助,你已经清楚你将会找到什么,甚至可能在哪里找到它。 但统一性也有其缺点。 仅拿一个问题来说,国家连锁店已经将那些能够提供更多个人关注的小型、地方拥有的企业赶走了。 而且,如果你想购买一个国家连锁店没有携带的产品,那么就很难找到。

    The McDonaldization of society, then, has come at a cost of originality and creativity. Ritzer says that we have paid a price for our devotion to uniformity, calculability, efficiency, and automation. Like Max Weber before him, he fears that the increasing rationalization of society will deprive us of human individuality and also reduce the diversity of our material culture. What do you think? Does his analysis change what you thought about fast-food restaurants and big-box stores?
    ::因此,社会本土化是以创新和创造力为代价的。 Ritzer说,我们为致力于统一、计算、效率和自动化付出了代价。 像在他之前的Max Weber一样,他担心社会合理化会剥夺我们人类的个性,并减少我们物质文化的多样性。 你认为他的分析会改变你对快餐餐厅和大箱商店的看法吗?

    In contrast, (also called or voluntary associations) allow people to pursue their moral goals and commitments. Their members do not get paid and instead contribute their time or money because they like or admire what the organization does. The many examples of normative organizations include churches and synagogues, Boy and Girl Scouts, the Kiwanis Club and other civic groups, and groups with political objectives, such as the National Council of La Raza, the largest advocacy organization for Latino civil rights. Alexis de Tocqueville (1835/1994) Tocqueville, A. (1994). Democracy in America . New York, NY: Knopf. (Original work published 1835) observed some 175 years ago that the United States was a nation of joiners, and contemporary research finds that Americans indeed rank above average among democratic nations in membership in voluntary associations (Curtis, Baer, & Grabb, 2001). Curtis, J. E., Baer, D. E., & Grabb, E. G. (2001). Nations of joiners: Explaining voluntary association membership in democratic societies. American Sociological Review, 66, 783–805.
    ::相比之下,(也被称为或自愿协会)允许人们追求道德目标和承诺。 其成员得不到报酬,而是贡献时间或金钱,因为他们喜欢或欣赏该组织。 许多规范性组织的例子包括教堂和犹太教堂、童子军、基瓦尼斯俱乐部和其他民间团体,以及具有政治目标的团体,如拉拉扎全国理事会(La Raza,拉丁美洲公民权利最大的倡导组织)。亚历克西斯·德托克维尔(1835/1994)托克维尔(Tocqueville,A.(1994)。美国民主。纽约:克诺普夫(纽约:Knopf. (原件出版,1835年))在大约175年前指出,美国是一个加入国,当代研究发现,美国人确实在自愿协会(Curtis, Baer, & Grab, 2001年)。 Curtis, J. E. E., Baer, D. E. E., & Grab, E. G. G. (2001年)。 加入国:解释民主社会自愿协会成员资格。《美国社会学评论》,66,783-805。

    Some people end up in organizations involuntarily because they have violated the law or been judged to be mentally ill. Prisons and state mental institutions are examples of such , which, as total institutions seek to control all phases of their members’ lives. Our chances of ending up in coercive organizations depend on various aspects of our social backgrounds. For prisons one of these aspects is geographical. examines the distribution of imprisonment in the United States and shows the imprisonment rate (number of inmates per 100,000 residents) for each of the four major census regions. This rate tends to be highest in the South and in the West. Do you think this pattern exists because crime rates are highest in these regions or instead because these regions are more likely than other parts of the United States to send convicted criminals to prisons?
    ::监狱和州立精神病院就是这种情况的例子。 监狱和州立精神病院是这种情况的例子,因为总体机构都试图控制其会员生活的各个阶段。 我们进入胁迫性组织的机会取决于我们社会背景的方方面面。 对于监狱来说,其中一个方面是地理上的。审查美国监禁的分布情况,并显示四个主要人口普查区域中的每个区域的监禁率(每10万居民中囚犯的人数 ) 。这个比率在南部和西部往往最高。 你认为这种模式的存在是因为犯罪率在这些区域最高,还是因为这些区域比美国其他地区更有可能将被定罪的罪犯送进监狱?

    Census Regions and Imprisonment Rates, 2009 (Number of Inmates per 100,000 Residents)
    ::2009年人口普查区域和监禁率(每10万居民囚犯人数)

    Source: Data from West, H. C. (2010). Prison inmates at midyear 2009—statistical tables. Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice .
    ::资料来源:West的数据,H.C.(2010年):2009年年中监狱囚犯统计表,华盛顿特区:美国司法部司法统计局。

    Bureaucracies: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
    ::官僚:好人、坏人、丑人

    As discussed earlier, Max Weber emphasized that modern societies increasingly depend on formal organizations to accomplish key tasks. He particularly had in mind , or formal organizations with certain organizational features designed to achieve goals in the most efficient way possible. He said that the ideal type of bureaucracy is characterized by several features that together maximize the efficiency and effectiveness of organizational decision making and goal accomplishment:
    ::如前所述,马克斯·韦伯强调,现代社会越来越依赖正规组织来完成关键任务,他特别想到(......)或具有某些组织特点、旨在以尽可能最有效的方式实现目标的正规组织。

    1.  Specialization . By specialization Weber meant a division of labor in which specific people have certain tasks—and only those tasks—to do. Presumably they are most skilled at these tasks and less skilled at others. With such specialization, the people who are best suited to do various tasks are the ones who work on them, maximizing the ability of the organization to have these tasks accomplished.
    ::1. 专业化:通过Weber专业化,意味着分工,具体人员有某些任务需要做——只有这些任务需要做——据推测,他们最擅长这些任务,而其他人员则不那么熟练,通过这种专业化,最适合从事各种任务的人就是那些从事这些工作的人,从而最大限度地提高本组织完成这些任务的能力。

    2.  Hierarchy . Equality does not exist in a bureaucracy. Instead its structure resembles a pyramid, with a few positions at the top and many more lower down. The chain of command runs from the top to the bottom, with the persons occupying the positions at the top supervising those below them. The higher you are in the hierarchy, the fewer people to whom you have to report. Weber thought a hierarchical structure maximizes efficiency because it reduces decision-making time and puts the authority to make the most important decisions in the hands of the people at the top of the pyramid who presumably are the best qualified to make them.
    ::2. 等级制:在官僚机构中不存在平等,而其结构类似于金字塔,在最高层有几个职位,在下层有更低的职位;指挥链从上到下,在最高层任职的人监督在下层任职的人;在级别越高,向上报告的人越少;Weber认为,等级结构效率越大,因为它减少了决策时间,并赋予权力,让金字塔顶层的人作出最重要的决定,而这些人可能最有资格作出这些决定。

    3.  Written rules and regulations . For an organization to work efficiently, everyone must know what to do and when to do it. This means their actions must be predictable. To ensure predictability, their roles and the organization’s operating procedures must be written in a manual or handbook, with everyone in the organization expected to be familiar with its rules. Much of the communication among members of bureaucracies is written in the form of memos and e-mail rather than being verbal. This written communication leaves a paper trail so that accountability for individual behavior can later be determined.
    ::3. 书面细则和条例. 要使一个组织有效工作,每个人都必须知道应该做什么和何时去做,这意味着他们的行动必须是可预测的;为了确保可预测性,他们的作用和组织的运作程序必须写在手册或手册中,组织内每一个人都希望熟悉其规则;官僚机构成员之间的大部分沟通是以备忘录和电子邮件形式而不是口头形式写的;书面沟通留下纸面线索,以便日后确定个人行为的问责制。

    4.  Impartiality and impersonality . The head of a small, nonbureaucratic organization might prefer to hire people she or he knows and promote them on the same basis. Weber thought that impartiality in hiring, promotion, and firing would be much better for a large organization, as it guarantees people will advance through a firm based on their skills and knowledge, not on whom they know. Clients should also be treated impersonally, as an organization in the long run would be less effective if it gave favorable treatment to clients based on whom they know or on their nice personalities. As Weber recognized, the danger is that employees and clients alike become treated like numbers or cogs in a machine, with their individual needs and circumstances ignored in the name of organizational efficiency.
    ::4. 公正性和不人性.一个小型、非官僚性的组织的负责人可能更愿意在同样的基础上雇用她所认识的人并提升他们。Weber认为,在雇用、晋升和解雇方面保持公正,对一个大型组织来说会更好,因为这样可以保证人们通过一家以其技能和知识为基础的公司而不是他们所认识的人来进步。客户也应受到非人性的对待,因为从长远看,如果一个组织对以其认识的客户或以其善良的个性为根据的客户给予优待,那么从长远看,它就会不那么有效。正如Weber所承认的那样,危险是雇员和客户在机器中受到像数字或cogs一样的待遇,他们的个人需要和情况被以组织效率的名义忽视。

    5.  Record keeping . As you probably know from personal experience, bureaucracies keep all kinds of records, especially in today’s computer age. A small enterprise, say a Mom-and-Pop store, might keep track of its merchandise and the bills its customers owe with some notes scribbled here and there, even in the information technology age, but a large organization must have much more extensive record keeping to keep track of everything.
    ::5. 记录保存:你可能从个人经验中知道,官僚机构保存各种记录,特别是在今天的计算机时代。 一个小企业,比如一家Mom-and-Pop商店,也许可以追踪其商品和客户欠的帐单,这些帐单上写着一些纸条,即使是在信息技术时代,但一个大型组织必须拥有更广泛的记录,以记录一切。

    Max Weber emphasized bureaucracies as a feature of modern life. Key aspects of bureaucracies include specialization, hierarchy, written rules and regulations, impartiality and impersonality, and record keeping.
    ::马克思·韦伯强调官僚主义是现代生活的一个特点,官僚主义的关键方面包括专业化、等级、书面规则和条例、公正性和不人格以及记录保存。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商

    The Disadvantages of Bureaucracy
    ::官僚机构的缺点

    Taking all of these features into account, Weber (1921/1978) Weber, M. (1978). Economy and society: An outline of interpretive sociology (G. Roth and C. Wittich, Eds.). Berkeley: University of California Press. (Original work published 1921) thought bureaucracies were the most efficient and effective type of organization in a large, complex society. At the same time, he despaired over their impersonality, which he saw reflecting the growing dehumanization that accompanies growing societies. As social scientists have found since his time, bureaucracies have other problems that undermine their efficiency and effectiveness:
    ::考虑到所有这些特点,韦伯(1921/1978年)WeberWeber,M.(1978年)M.(经济和社会:解释社会学纲要(G.Roth和C.Witich,Eds.)Berkeley:加利福尼亚大学出版社(1921年出版的《原始著作》)认为官僚机构是大型复杂社会中最有效率、最有效的组织形式。与此同时,他对非人性感到绝望,他看到这种非人性在不断增长,反映出社会日益变得非人性化。正如社会科学家自他时代以来发现的那样,官僚机构还有其他问题,损害其效率和效力:

    1. Impersonality and alienation . The first problem is the one just mentioned: bureaucracies can be very alienating experiences for their employees and clients alike. A worker without any sick leave left who needs to take some time off to care for a sick child might find a supervisor saying no, because the rules prohibit it. A client who stands in a long line might find herself turned away when she gets to the front because she forgot to fill out every single box in a form. We all have stories of impersonal, alienating experiences in today’s large bureaucracies.
      ::第一个问题是刚刚提到的问题:官僚机构对员工和客户的体验都是非常疏远的。 没有病假的工人需要休息一段时间来照顾生病的孩子,可能会发现上司说不,因为规则禁止这样做。 身处长途的客户可能因为忘记填写表格中的每个盒子而发现自己被拒之门外。 在今天的大型官僚机构里,我们都有过一些非人性、疏远他人的经历。
    2. Red tape . A second disadvantage of bureaucracy is “red tape,” or, as sociologist Robert Merton (1968) Merton, R. K. (1968). Social theory and social structure . New York, NY: Free Press. called it, , a greater devotion to rules and regulations than to organizational goals. Bureaucracies often operate by slavish attention to even the pickiest of rules and regulations. If every “t” isn’t crossed and every “i” isn’t dotted, then someone gets into trouble, and perhaps a client is not served. Such bureaucratic ritualism contributes to the alienation already described.
      ::官僚主义的第二个缺点是“红色胶带 ” , 或者,作为社会学家罗伯特·梅尔顿(R.K.),R.K.(1968年),社会理论和社会结构。 纽约:自由新闻社(New York: Free Press ) , 称之为“自由新闻社 ” ( Free Press ) , 更致力于规则和条例,而不是组织目标。 官僚主义经常通过对甚至最精细的规则和条例的过度关注来运作。 如果每个“不”都没有被打破,每个“i”都没有被点头,那么有人会陷入麻烦,也许一个客户得不到服务。 这种官僚主义的仪式主义助长了已经描述的疏远。
    3. Trained incapacity . If an overabundance of rules and regulations and overattention to them lead to bureaucratic ritualism, they also lead to an inability of people in an organization to think creatively and to act independently. In the late 1800s, Thorstein Veblen (1899/1953) Veblen, T. 1953. The theory of the leisure class: An economic study of institutions . New York, NY: New American Library. (Original work published 1899) called this problem trained incapacity . When unforeseen problems arise, trained incapacity may prevent organizational members from being able to handle them.
      ::受过训练的无能力者:如果规章条例的过多和过于注意这些规章条例会导致官僚主义的仪式主义,它们也会导致一个组织的人无法创造性地思考和独立行事;1800年代末,Thorstein Veblen (1899/1953年)Veblen, T. 1953年;休闲课理论:机构的经济研究,纽约:纽约:美国新图书馆(1899年出版的原始工作)称这个问题为经过训练的无能力者;出现意外问题时,经过训练的无能力者可能阻止组织成员处理他们。
    4. Bureaucratic incompetence . Two popular writers have humorously pointed to special problems in bureaucracies that undermine their effectiveness. The first of these, popularly known as Parkinson’s law after its coiner, English historian C. Northcote Parkinson (1957), Parkinson, C. N. (1957). Parkinson’s law and other studies in administration . New York, NY: Ballantine Books. says that work expands to fill the time available for it. To put it another way, the more time you have to do something, the longer it takes. The second problem is called the Peter Principle, also named after its founder, Canadian author Laurence J. Peter (1969), Peter, L. J., & Hull R. (1969). The Peter principle: Why things always go wrong . New York, NY: William Morrow. and says that people will eventually be promoted to their level of incompetence. In this way of thinking, someone who does a good job will get promoted and then get promoted again if she or he continues doing a good job. Eventually such people will be promoted to a job for which they are not well qualified, impeding organizational efficiency and effectiveness. Have you ever worked for someone who illustrated the Peter Principle?
      ::官僚官僚的无能。 两位流行作家幽默地指出官僚机构的特殊问题,这些问题破坏了它们的效力。 其中第一个问题,即流行称为帕金森法律的英国历史学家C.Northcote Pakinson(1957年)、Parkinson(1957年)、Parkinson(1957年)、Parkinson(Parkinson)的法律和其他行政研究。纽约:Ballantine Books(纽约:Ballantine Books)说,工作将扩大以填补可供使用的时间。换句话说,你必须做一件事的时间越长,就会越长。第二个问题被称为彼得原则,也以其创始人加拿大作家Laurence J.Peter(1969年)、Peter(1969年)、L.J.和Hull R.(1969年)命名。 彼得原则:为什么事情总是出错。纽约:William Morrow(William Morrow)说,人们最终会被提升到他们的无能。 以这种思维方式, 做好的工作的人会得到提升,如果她或他继续做一件好的工作,就会得到提升。 这样的人将会被提升到一个工作效率高低的岗位上。
    5. Goal displacement and self-perpetuation . Sometimes bureaucracies become so swollen with rules and personnel that they take on a life of their own and lose sight of the goals they were originally designed to achieve. People in the bureaucracy become more concerned with their job comfort and security than with helping the organization accomplish its objectives. To the extent this happens, the bureaucracy’s efficiency and effectiveness are again weakened.
      ::目标转移和自生自灭。 有时官僚机构变得如此繁忙,规则与人员都无法自生自灭,忽视了原本要达到的目标。 官僚机构的人更关心的是工作舒适和安全,而不是帮助组织实现其目标。 在这种情况下,官僚机构的效率和效能再次被削弱。

    Michels’s Iron Law of Oligarchy
    ::米歇尔的《奥利加奇铁铁法》

    Several decades ago Robert Michels (1876–1936), a German activist and scholar, published his famous , by which he meant that large organizations inevitably develop an oligarchy, or the undemocratic rule of many people by just a few people (Michels, 1911/1949). Michels, R. (1949). Political parties . Glencoe, IL: Free Press. (Original work published 1911) He said this happens as leaders increasingly monopolize knowledge because they have more access than do other organizational members to information and technology. They begin to think they are better suited than other people to lead their organizations, and they also do their best to stay in their positions of power, which they find very appealing. This latter goal becomes more important than helping the organization achieve its objectives and than serving the interests of the workers further down the organizational pyramid. Drawing on our earlier discussion of group size, it is also true that as an organization becomes larger, it becomes very difficult to continue to involve all group members in decision making, which almost inevitably becomes monopolized by the relatively few people at the top of the organization. Michels thought oligarchization happens not only in bureaucracies but also in a society’s political structures and said that the inevitable tendency to oligarchy threatens democracy by concentrating political decision-making power in the hands of a few. As his use of the term iron law suggests, Michels thought the development of oligarchies was inevitable, and he was very pessimistic about democracy’s future.
    ::几十年前,德国活跃分子和学者罗伯特·米歇尔(Robert Michles)(1876-1936年)发表了他的著名著作,其中他的意思是大型组织不可避免地会通过少数人(Michels, 1911-1949年)。Michels, R.(1949年)。 政党。 Glencoe, IL:Free Press。 (原件工作公布于1911年)他说,这是随着领导人越来越多地垄断知识而发生的,因为他们比其他组织成员有更多的机会获得信息和技术。他们开始认为自己比其他人更适合领导自己的组织,并且他们也尽力保留他们认为非常有吸引力的权力地位。 后一目标比帮助组织实现其目标和为工人的利益服务还要重要。 根据我们早些时候对集团规模的讨论,同样确实很难让所有集团成员继续参与决策,而这几乎不可避免地被组织高层相对较少的人垄断。 Michels认为,政治独裁统治不仅发生在政治结构的不可避免阶段,而且威胁着他的政治决策周期。

    Has our society as a whole lost some of its democracy in the ways Michels predicted? Some evidence supports his prediction. For example, many large organizations, including corporations, labor unions, political parties, and colleges and universities, do resemble the types of oligarchies over which Michels despaired. In most of these, decision making is indeed concentrated in the hands of a few, who often do work, at least according to their critics, for their own interests as least as much as they do for the interests of the organization and its members. On the other hand, organizational and political leaders do not work always for themselves and often have the interests of their organizations and the public in mind. Michels’s law might not be so ironclad after all, but it does remind us to be on the alert for the undemocratic processes he predicted.
    ::我们整个社会是否都以米歇尔预测的方式失去了一些民主? 一些证据支持他的预测。 比如,许多大型组织,包括公司、工会、政党、学院和大学,的确与米歇尔绝望的寡头组织类型相似。 在多数情况下,决策确实集中在少数人手中,他们经常为自身利益工作,至少按照批评者的说法,他们至少是为了组织及其成员的利益工作。 另一方面,组织和政治领导人并非总是为自己工作,而且往往有组织和公众的利益。 米歇尔斯的法律也许根本不是铁定的,但它确实提醒我们警惕他所预测的不民主的进程。

    Learning From Other Societies
    ::从其他社会学会学习

    Japan’s Formal Organizations: Benefits and Disadvantages of Traditional Ways
    ::日本的正式组织:传统方法的好处和缺点

    Although Japan possesses one of the world’s most productive industrial economies, its culture remains very traditional in several ways. As we saw in the previous two chapters, for example, the Japanese culture continues to value harmony and cooperation and to frown on public kissing. Interestingly, Japan’s traditional ways are reflected in its formal (utilitarian) organizations even as they produce much of the world’s output of cars, electronics, and other products and provide some lessons for our own society.
    ::尽管日本拥有世界上最有生产力的工业经济体之一,但日本文化在几个方面仍然非常传统。 比如,正如我们在前两章中所看到的那样,日本文化继续珍视和谐与合作,对公众的接吻持冷漠态度。 有趣的是,日本的传统方式在其正式(功利主义)组织中得到了反映,即使它们生产了世界上汽车、电子和其他产品的大量产出,并为我们自己的社会提供了一些教训。

    One of these lessons concerns the experiences of women in the Japanese workplace, as this experience reflects Japan’s very traditional views on women’s social roles (Schneider & Silverman, 2010). Schneider, L., & Silverman, A. (2010). Global sociology: Introducing five contemporary societies . New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Japan continues to think a woman’s place is first and foremost in the home and with her children. Accordingly, women there have much fewer job opportunities than do men and in fact have few job prospects beyond clerical work and other blue-collar positions. Many young women seek to become “office ladies,” whose main role in a business is to look pretty, do some filing and photocopying, and be friendly to visitors. They are supposed to live at home before marrying and typically must quit their jobs when they do marry. Women occupy only about 10% of managerial positions in Japan’s business and government, compared to 43% of their U.S. counterparts (Fackler, 2007). Fackler, M. (2007, August 6). Career women in Japan find a blocked path. The New York Times, p. A1.
    ::其中一个教训涉及日本工作场所妇女的经历,因为这一经验反映了日本对妇女社会角色的非常传统的观点(Schneider & Silverman,2010年)。Schneider, L, & Silverman, A. (2010年)。全球社会学:介绍五个当代社会。纽约:McGraw-Hill。日本继续认为,妇女的地位首先在家庭和子女家中。因此,妇女的就业机会比男子少得多,事实上,除了文书工作和其他蓝领职位之外,她们的工作前景也很少。许多年轻女性寻求成为“办公室女郎 ” , 她们在商业中的主要角色是漂亮,做一些归档和复印,并且对来访者友好。她们应该在结婚前住在家里,通常在结婚时必须辞掉工作。在日本商业和政府中,妇女只占管理职位的10%,而美国同行只有43%(Fackler, 2007年, Fackler, M. (2007年, 8月 6日 ) 。日本职业女性在日本找到了一条被阻挡的道路。《纽约时报》, p. Times.

    For these reasons, men are the primary subjects of studies on life in Japanese corporations. Here we see some striking differences from how U.S. corporations operate (Jackson & Tomioka, 2004). Jackson, K., & Tomioka, M. (2004). The changing face of Japanese management . New York, NY: Routledge. For example, the emphasis on the group in Japanese schools also characterizes corporate life. Individuals hired at roughly the same time by a Japanese corporation are evaluated and promoted collectively, not individually, although some corporations have tried to conduct more individual assessment. Just as Japanese schools have their children engage in certain activities to foster group spirit, so do Japanese corporations have their workers engage in group exercises and other activities to foster a community feeling in the workplace. The companies sponsor many recreational activities outside the workplace for the same reason. In another difference from their American counterparts, Japanese companies have their workers learn several different jobs within the same companies so that they can discover how the various jobs relate to each other. Perhaps most important, leadership in Japanese corporations is more democratic and less authoritarian than in their American counterparts. Japanese workers meet at least weekly in small groups to discuss various aspects of their jobs and of corporate goals and to give their input to corporate managers.
    ::出于这些原因,男性是日本公司生活研究的首要课题。在这里,我们看到美国公司如何经营(Jackson & Tomioka,2004年,Jackson, K., & Tomioka, M.(2004年))与美国公司如何经营有一些惊人的差别。日本管理层不断变化的面貌。纽约:Routledge。例如,日本学校对这个群体的强调也是公司生活的特点。日本公司雇用的个人大约在同一时间被集体评价和提升,而不是个别地进行更多的个人评估。尽管有些公司试图进行更多的个人评估。正如日本学校有子女从事某些培养集体精神的活动一样,日本公司也有工人参加团体演习和其他活动以促进工作场所的社区感觉。公司出于同样的原因在工作场所以外主办许多娱乐活动。在同美国同行的另一项不同之处是,日本公司工人在同一家公司中学习了若干不同的工作,以便了解各种工作彼此的关系。也许最重要的是,日本公司的领导比美国同行更民主,更不那么专制。日本工人每周至少会举行小组会议,讨论公司业务和公司目标的各个方面。

    Japan’s traditional organizational culture, then, has certain benefits but also one very important disadvantage, at least from an American perspective (Levin, 2006). Levin, H. M. (2006). Worker democracy and worker productivity. Social Justice Research, 19, 109–121. Its traditional, group-oriented model seems to generate higher productivity and morale than the more individualistic American model. On the other hand, its exclusion of women from positions above the clerical level deprives Japanese corporations of women’s knowledge and talents and would no doubt dismay many Americans. As the United States tries to boost its own economy, it may well make sense to adopt some elements of Japan’s traditional organizational model, as some U.S. information technology companies have done, but it would certainly not make sense to incorporate its views of women and the workplace.
    ::因此,日本的传统组织文化有一些好处,但也有一个非常重要的不利之处,至少从美国的角度来说(Levin,2006年,Levin,H.M.(2006年),Levin,H.M.(2006年),《工人民主和工人生产率》(2006年),《社会正义研究》,19,109-121。 其传统的面向群体的模式似乎比个人主义的美国模式更能产生更高的生产率和士气。 另一方面,将妇女排斥在文官职位之上的做法剥夺了日本妇女企业的知识和才智,无疑会让许多美国人感到沮丧。 美国试图刺激其自身经济,采用日本传统组织模式的某些要素,如一些美国信息技术公司所做的那样,可能很有意义,但纳入日本对妇女和工作场所的看法肯定不合理。

    Key Takeaways
    ::密钥外出

    • The major types of formal organizations include those that are utilitarian, normative, and coercive.
      ::主要类型的正式组织包括实用性、规范性和强制性的组织。
    • As one type of formal organization, the bureaucracy has several defining characteristics, including specialization, hierarchy, written rules and regulations, impartiality and impersonality, and record keeping.
      ::作为正式组织的一种形式,官僚机构有几种明确的特点,包括专业化、等级、书面规则和条例、公正性和不人格以及记录保存。
    • Bureaucracies also include some negative characteristics such as alienation and red tape.
      ::官僚主义还包括一些消极的特征,如疏远和繁文缛节。
    • Michels’s iron law of oligarchy assumes that large organizations inevitably develop undemocratic rule.
      ::米歇尔的寡头统治铁律假定大型组织不可避免地会发展不民主的统治。

    For Your Review
    ::供您审阅

    1. Think of any bureaucracy with which you have had some experience. Describe evidence that it was characterized by any three of the defining characteristics of bureaucracies.
      ::描述证据,说明它具有官僚机构任何三种界定特征的特点。
    2. Do you share Max Weber’s view that bureaucracies must be impersonal and alienating? Explain your answer.
      ::您是否同意 Max Weber 的观点, 认为官僚机构必须非人性化和疏远性? 请解释您的答复 。