Section outline

  • General

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  • 社会自 社

    Objectives
    ::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标

    Analyze the respective strengths and limitations of the following theorists’ with regards to human development: Charles Horton Cooley, George Herbert Mead, Jean Piaget, and John Locke.
    ::分析下列理论家在人类发展方面的各自长处和局限性:查尔斯·霍顿·库利、乔治·赫伯特·米德、让·皮亚格特和约翰·洛克。

    Explain how a person’s sense of self is created.
    ::解释一个人的自我意识是如何创造的。

    Analyze the effects socialization has on the individual.
    ::分析社会化对个人的影响。

    Describe the three sociological theories.
    ::描述三个社会学理论。

    Evaluate how specific theories help an individual develop a sense of self and become socialized.
    ::评估具体理论如何帮助个人发展自我意识并实现社会化。


    Universal Generalizations
    ::普遍化

    Socialization is critical to the internalization of cultural norms.
    ::社会化对于文化规范的内部化至关重要。

    The process of socialization is similar in all cultures around the world. 
    ::全世界所有文化的社会化进程都相似。

    People develop a sense of self at a very young age.
    ::人们在很小的年纪就培养了自我意识。

    People who are socialized develop a sense of self.
    ::社会化的人发展自我意识。

    People are not born with an intrinsic knowledge of themselves or others.
    ::人们并非天生就具有自己或他人的内在知识。


    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    How does a person’s sense of self develop?
    ::一个人的自我意识如何发展?

    What are the theories that help explain the process of socialization?
    ::帮助解释社会化过程的理论是什么?

    What roles do significant others play in our socialization process?
    ::其他人在我们的社会化进程中起什么重要作用?

    Explaining Socialization
    ::解释社会化

    Learning Objective
    ::学习目标

    1. Describe the theories of Cooley, Mead, Freud, Piaget, Kohlberg, Gilligan, and Erikson.
      ::描述库利、米德、弗洛伊德、皮盖特、科尔贝格、吉利根和埃里克森的理论。

    Because socialization is so important, scholars in various fields have tried to understand how and why it occurs, with different scholars looking at different aspects of the process. Their efforts mostly focus on infancy, childhood, and adolescence, which are the critical years for socialization, but some have also looked at how socialization continues through the life course. Let’s examine some of the major theories of socialization, which are summarized in .
    ::社会化之所以如此重要,是因为不同领域的学者都试图了解社会化是如何发生的和为什么发生的,而不同的学者则关注这一过程的不同方面。 他们的努力大多集中在婴儿、童年和青春期,而这些都是社会化的关键年头,但有些人也审视了社会化在人生过程中的延续。 让我们审视一下社会化的一些主要理论,这些理论在其中得到了总结。

    Theory Major figure(s) Major assumptions
    Looking-glass self Charles Horton Cooley

    Children gain an impression of how people perceive them as the children interact with them. In effect, children “see” themselves when they interact with other people, as if they are looking in a mirror. Individuals use the perceptions that others have of them to develop judgments and feelings about themselves.
    ::事实上,儿童在与他人互动时“看”他们自己,仿佛是在照镜子一样。 个人利用他人对他们的看法来形成对自己的判断和感觉。

    Taking the role of the other George Herbert Mead

    Children pretend to be other people in their play and in so doing learn what these other people expect of them. Younger children take the role of significant others, or the people, most typically parents and siblings, who have the most contact with them; older children when they play sports and other games take on the roles of other people and internalize the expectations of the generalized other, or society itself.
    ::儿童在游戏中假装是其他人,在游戏中学习其他人对他们的期望; 年幼儿童扮演着重要其他人的角色,或扮演着与他们最有接触的人,通常是父母和兄弟姐妹; 年长儿童在参加运动和其他游戏时扮演着其他人的角色,将普通其他人或社会本身的期望内部化。

    Psychoanalytic Sigmund Freud

    The personality consists of the id, ego, and superego. If a child does not develop normally and the superego does not become strong enough to overcome the id, antisocial behavior may result.
    ::如果一个孩子不能正常地发育,而超级英雄的体力不足以克服该病症,那么就可能产生反社会行为。

    Cognitive development Jean Piaget

    Cognitive development occurs through four stages. The final stage is the formal operational stage, which begins at age 12 as children begin to use general principles to resolve various problems.
    ::认知发展分为四个阶段,最后阶段是正式运作阶段,从12岁开始,儿童开始利用一般原则解决各种问题。

    Moral development Lawrence Kohlberg, Carol Gilligan

    Children develop their ability to think and act morally through several stages. If they fail to reach the conventional stage, in which adolescents realize that their parents and society have rules that should be followed because they are morally right to follow, they might well engage in harmful behavior. Whereas boys tend to use formal rules to decide what is right or wrong, girls tend to take personal relationships into account.
    ::儿童通过几个阶段发展思维和道德行为的能力,如果他们未能达到传统阶段,即青少年认识到其父母和社会有应遵循的规则,因为他们在道德上有权遵循,他们很可能从事有害的行为,而男孩往往使用正式规则来决定什么是对的,什么是错的,而女孩则倾向于将个人关系考虑在内。

    Identity development Erik Erikson

    Identity development encompasses eight stages across the life course. The fifth stage occurs in adolescence and is especially critical because teenagers often experience an identity crisis as they move from childhood to adulthood.
    ::身份发展涵盖整个生命周期的八个阶段,第五阶段发生在青春期,特别关键,因为青少年从童年到成年往往经历身份危机。

    Sociological Explanations: The Development of the Self
    ::社会学解释:自我发展

    One set of explanations, and the most sociological of those we discuss, looks at how the , or one’s identity, self-concept, and self-image, develops. These explanations stress that we learn how to interact by first interacting with others and that we do so by using this interaction to gain an idea of who we are and what they expect of us.
    ::一种解释,也就是我们讨论的最社会学解释,审视一个人的身份、自我概念和自我形象是如何发展的。 这些解释强调我们学会如何通过首先与他人互动来互动,而我们通过这种互动来获取我们是谁以及他们对我们的期望。

    Charles Horton Cooley
    ::查尔斯·霍顿·库利

    Among the first to advance this view was Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929), who said that by interacting with other people we gain an impression of how they perceive us. In effect, we “see” ourselves when we interact with other people, as if we are looking in a mirror when we are with them. Cooley (1902) Cooley, C. H. (1902). Social organization . New York, NY: Scribner’s. developed his famous concept of the to summarize this process. Cooley said we first imagine how we appear to others and then imagine how they think of us and, more specifically, whether they are evaluating us positively or negatively. We then use these perceptions to develop judgments and feelings about ourselves, such as pride or embarrassment.
    ::首先提出这一看法的有查尔斯·霍尔顿·库利(1864-1929年),他说,通过与其他人的互动,我们获得了他们如何看待我们的印象。实际上,当我们与其他人互动时,我们“看到”自己,好像我们是在镜中看着他们在一起一样。库利(1902年)C.H.(1902年),社会组织。纽约:斯克里布纳(New York):纽约:斯克里布纳(Scribner)(Scribner))(Scribner)(Scribner)(Scribner)(New York ) ) 。 库利(Cooley)说,我们首先想象我们如何看待其他人,然后想象他们如何看待我们,更具体地说,他们是在正面还是负面评价我们。 然后我们用这些观点来发展自我判断和感情,比如骄傲或尴尬。

    Sometimes errors occur in this complex process, as we may misperceive how others regard us and develop misguided judgments of our behavior and feelings. For example, you may have been in a situation where someone laughed at what you said, and you thought they were mocking you, when in fact they just thought you were being funny. Although you should have interpreted their laughter positively, you interpreted it negatively and probably felt stupid or embarrassed.
    ::有时候,错误会发生在这个复杂的过程中,因为我们可能会误解别人如何看待我们,并对我们的行为和感情做出错误的判断。 比如,你可能陷入了这样一种境地:有人嘲笑你说的话,你以为他们在嘲笑你,而事实上他们只是觉得你很有趣。尽管你应该正面地解读他们的笑声,但你却对它做了负面的解读,甚至感到愚蠢或尴尬。

    Whether errors occur or not, the process Cooley described is especially critical during childhood and adolescence, when our self is still in a state of flux. Imagine how much better children on a sports team feel after being cheered for making a great play or how children in the school band feel after a standing ovation at the end of the band’s performance. If they feel better about themselves, they may do that much better next time. For better or worse, the reverse is also true. If children do poorly on the sports field or in a school performance and the applause they hoped for does not occur, they may feel dejected and worse about themselves and from frustration or anxiety perform worse the next time around.
    ::库利所描述的过程是否出错,在童年和青少年时期,当我们自己仍然处于一个不断变化的状态时,Cooley所描述的过程特别关键。 想象一下体育队的儿童在被欢呼后,在为一场伟大的演出欢呼之后感觉有多好,或者在乐队表演结束时,在校园乐团的儿童感到怎样。 如果他们对自己感觉更好,下次他们可能做得更好。 不论好坏,反之亦然。 如果儿童在体育场或学校表演中表现不佳,而且他们希望的掌声不会发生,他们可能会对自己感到沮丧和焦虑,下次他们可能感觉更糟糕。

    Yet it is also true that the looking-glass-self process affects us throughout our lives. By the time we get out of late adolescence and into our early adult years, we have very much developed our conception of our self, yet this development is never complete. As young, middle-aged, or older adults, we continue to react to our perceptions of how others are viewing us, and these perceptions influence our conception of our self, even if this influence is often less than was true in our younger years. Whether our social interaction is with friends, relatives, coworkers, supervisors, or even strangers, our self continues to change.
    ::然而,同样正确的是,看一看的玻璃本身过程影响着我们一生。当我们走出晚年的青春期,进入我们早期的成人岁月时,我们已经大大地发展了我们自我的观念,但这种发展却从未完成。 作为年轻、中年或老年,我们继续对我们关于他人如何看待我们的看法作出反应,这些观念影响着我们自我的观念,即使这种影响往往比我们年轻时的观念要小。我们的社会互动是否与朋友、亲属、同事、监督者,甚至陌生人有联系,我们自己是否在继续改变。

    Charles Horton Cooley wrote that we gain an impression of ourselves by interacting with other people. By doing so, we “see” ourselves as if we are looking in a mirror when we are with them. Cooley developed his famous concept of the looking-glass self to summarize this process.
    ::查尔斯·霍尔顿·库利写道,通过与其他人的互动,我们获得了自我的印象。 通过这样做,我们“看到 ” 自己仿佛在镜子里看到我们和他们在一起。 库利提出了他著名的玻璃外观概念来总结这一过程。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商

    George Herbert Mead
    ::乔治·赫伯特·梅德

    Another scholar who discussed the development of the self was George Herbert Mead (1863–1931), a founder of the field of symbolic interactionism discussed in . Mead’s (1934) Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, and society . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. main emphasis was on children’s playing, which he saw as central to their understanding of how people should interact. When they play, Mead said, children . This means they pretend to be other people in their play and in so doing learn what these other people expect of them. For example, when children play house and pretend to be their parents, they treat their dolls the way they think their parents treat them. In so doing, they get a better idea of how they are expected to behave. Another way of saying this is that they internalize the expectations other people have of them.
    ::讨论自我发展的另一位学者是乔治·赫伯特·梅德(George Herbert Mead)(1863-1931年),他是在Mead's (1934年)Mead's(1934年)Mead,G.H.(1934年)讨论的象征性互动主义领域的创始人。思想、自我和社会。芝加哥,IL:芝加哥大学出版社。主要重点是儿童游戏,他认为这是他们理解人们如何互动的核心。当他们玩耍的时候,Mead说,儿童。这意味着他们假装自己是玩耍中的其他人,并学习其他人对他们的期望。例如,当儿童玩家和假装是父母的时候,他们对待自己的玩偶,就像他们认为父母对待他们的方式一样对待他们一样。在这样做的时候,他们更清楚地了解他们应该如何行事。另一个方式是说,他们把其他人的期望内部化。

    Younger children, said Mead, take the role of , or the people, most typically parents and siblings, who have the most contact with them. Older children take on the roles of other people and learn society’s expectations as a whole. In so doing they internalize the expectations of what Mead called the , or society itself.
    ::Mead说,年幼儿童扮演着与他们关系最密切的人的角色,或者成为最典型的父母和兄弟姐妹。 年长儿童扮演着他人的角色,学习整个社会的期望。 在这样做的时候,他们内部化了对Mead所谓的“社会 ” ( 或社会本身 ) 的期望。

    This whole process, Mead wrote, involves several stages. In the imitation stage, infants can only imitate behavior without really understanding its purposes. If their parents rub their own bellies and laugh, 1-year-olds may do likewise. After they reach the age of 3, they are in the play stage. Here most of their play is by themselves or with only one or two other children, and much of it involves pretending to be other people: their parents, teachers, superheroes, television characters, and so forth. In this stage they begin taking the role of the other. Once they reach age 6 or 7, or roughly the time school begins, the games stage begins, and children start playing in team sports and games. The many players in these games perform many kinds of roles, and they must all learn to anticipate the actions of other members of their team. In so doing, they learn what is expected of the roles all team members are supposed to play and by extension begin to understand the roles society wants us to play, or to use Mead’s term, the expectations of the generalized other.
    ::Mead写道,整个过程涉及几个阶段。在模仿阶段,婴儿只能模仿行为而不真正理解它的目的。如果他们的父母擦自己的肚子和笑笑,一岁的孩子也可以这样做。他们到了3岁之后,他们正在玩耍阶段。在这里,他们的大部分游戏是自己玩的,或者只有另外一两个孩子玩耍,而且其中的很大一部分涉及假装是其他人:他们的父母、教师、超级英雄、电视人物等等。在这个阶段,他们开始扮演另一个角色。一旦他们年满6岁或7岁,或者大约在学校开学时,游戏阶段就开始了,儿童开始在团队运动和游戏中玩耍。这些游戏中的许多玩家扮演了多种角色,他们都必须学会预知他们团队其他成员的行动。在这样做的时候,他们学习了所有团队成员应该扮演的角色的预期,通过扩展开始理解社会想要我们扮演的角色,或者使用Mead的术语,其他人的期望。

    Mead felt that the self has two parts, the “I” and the “me.” The “ I ” is the creative, spontaneous part of the self, while the “ me ” is the more passive part of the self stemming from the internalized expectations of the larger society. These two parts are not at odds, he thought, but instead complement each other and thus enhance the individual’s contributions to society. Society needs creativity, but it also needs at least some minimum of conformity. The development of both these parts of the self is important not only for the individual but also for the society to which the individual belongs.
    ::Mead认为自我有两部分,即“I”和“我 ” 。 “I”是自我的创造性和自发的部分,而“我”是来自大社会内化期望的自我更被动的部分。 他认为这两个部分并不矛盾,而是相互补充,从而增强个人对社会的贡献。社会需要创造力,但也至少需要某种最低限度的一致。 自我的这两个部分的发展不仅对个人,而且对个人所属的社会都很重要。

    Social-Psychological Explanations: Personality and Cognitive and Moral Development
    ::社会心理解释:个性、认知和道德发展

    A second set of explanations is more psychological, as it focuses on the development of personality, cognitive ability, and morality.
    ::第二套解释更具有心理意义,因为它侧重于个性、认知能力和道德的发展。

    Sigmund Freud and the Unconscious Personality
    ::西格蒙德·弗洛伊德和无意识的人格

    Whereas Cooley and Mead focused on interaction with others in explaining the development of the self, the great psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) focused on unconscious, biological forces that he felt shape individual personality. Freud (1933) Freud, S. (1933). New introductory lectures on psycho-analysis . New York, NY: Norton. thought that the personality consists of three parts: the , the , and the . The id is the selfish part of the personality and consists of biological instincts that all babies have, including the need for food and, more generally, the demand for immediate gratification. As babies get older, they learn that not all their needs can be immediately satisfied and thus develop the ego, or the rational part of the personality. As children get older still, they internalize society’s norms and values and thus begin to develop their superego, which represents society’s conscience. If a child does not develop normally and the superego does not become strong enough, the individual is more at risk for being driven by the id to commit antisocial behavior.
    ::虽然Cooley和Mead在解释自我发展时侧重于与他人的互动,但伟大的心理分析师Sigmund Fried(1856-1939年)侧重于他感觉塑造个人人格的无意识的生物力量。 Freud(1933年)Freud(1933年)Freud,S.(1933年)Freud,关于心理分析的新的介绍性演讲。纽约:Norton.认为个性由三个部分组成:个性、个性和自我发展。id是所有婴儿的自私部分,由生理本能组成,包括食物需求,以及更一般而言,即时满足的需求。随着婴儿的老化,他们认识到他们的需求不能立即得到满足,从而发展自我或个性的合理部分。随着儿童年龄的老化,他们将社会规范和价值观内部化,从而开始发展代表社会良知的超能力。如果一个孩子没有正常地发展,而超级基因没有变得足够强大,那么个人就更可能受到由反社会行为的驱使。

    Freud’s basic view that an individual’s personality and behavior develop from within conflicts with sociology’s emphasis on the social environment. That is not to say his view is wrong, but it is to say that it neglects the many very important influences highlighted by sociologists. In another problem, Freud’s views on women reflected the sexism of the Victorian era in which he lived. He thought that having and raising babies was women’s natural, desired role in life and that women who desired careers were mentally ill because they had not adjusted to this role. Freud’s views on women were heavily criticized by the contemporary women’s movement at its outset in the 1960s (Friedan, 1963; Millett, 1970). Friedan, B. (1963). The feminine mystique . New York, NY: W. W. Norton; Millett, K. (1970). Sexual politics . New York, NY: Doubleday.
    ::弗洛伊德认为,个人的个性和行为从与社会学强调社会环境的矛盾中发展而来。 这并不是说他的观点是错误的,而是说它忽视了社会学家强调的许多非常重要的影响。 在另一个问题上,弗洛伊德对妇女的看法反映了他所生活的维多利亚时代的性别主义。 他认为生育和抚养婴儿是妇女在生活中的自然和理想角色,希望职业生涯的妇女因为没有适应这一角色而患有精神疾病。 弗洛伊德关于妇女的观点在1960年代一开始就受到当代妇女运动的严重批评(弗里丹,1963年;米勒特,1970年)。 弗列丹,(1963年)。《女性神话》,纽约,W.W.Norton;米勒特,K.(1970年)。 性政治。纽约,纽约,纽约:双日。


    Sigmund Freud believed that the personality consists of three parts: the id, ego, and superego. The development of these biological forces helps shape an individual’s personality.
    ::西格蒙德·弗洛伊德(Sigmund Freud)认为个性由三部分组成:id, self, and superego。 这些生物力量的发展有助于塑造个人的个性。

    Source: Photo courtesy of LIFE Photo Archive, .
    ::照片来自Life照片档案馆,

    Piaget and Cognitive Development
    ::管道和认知发展

    Children acquire a self and personality, but they also learn how to think and reason. The way they acquire such cognitive development was the focus of research by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980). Piaget (1954) Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of reality in the child . New York, NY: Basic Books. thought that cognitive development occurs through four stages and that proper maturation of the brain and socialization were necessary for adequate development.
    ::儿童获得自我和个性,但他们也学会了思考和理性。他们获得这种认知发展的方式是瑞士心理学家Jean Piaget的研究重点(1896-1980年)。 Piaget (1954年) Piaget (J.) (1954年) Piaget (1954年) Piaget (1954年) Piaget (1954年) Piaget (1954年) Piaget (1954年) Piaget (1954年) Piaget (1954年) Piaget (1954年) Piaget) 。 儿童现实的构建。 纽约:纽约:基本书籍。 纽约:基本书。 认为认知发展分为四个阶段,大脑的正常成熟和社会化是充分发展的必要条件。

    The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, in which infants cannot really think or reason and instead use their hearing, vision, and other senses to discover the world around them. The second stage is the preoperational stage, lasting from about age 2 to age 7, in which children begin to use symbols, especially words, to understand objects and simple ideas. The third stage is the concrete operational stage, lasting from about age 7 to age 11 or 12, in which children begin to think in terms of cause and effect but still do not understand underlying principles of fairness, justice, and related concepts. The fourth and final stage is the formal operational stage, which begins about the age of 12. Here children begin to think abstractly and use general principles to resolve various problems.
    ::第一阶段是感官学阶段,婴儿无法真正思考或理性,而是不能利用听力、视觉和其他感知来发现周围的世界;第二阶段是运作前阶段,从2岁到7岁,儿童开始使用符号,特别是语言,以理解物体和简单想法;第三阶段是具体操作阶段,从7岁到11岁或12岁,儿童开始从因果关系的角度思考,但依然不理解公平、正义和相关概念的基本原则;第四阶段也是最后阶段,正式操作阶段,从12岁开始;在这里,儿童开始抽象思考,利用一般原则解决各种问题。

    Recent research supports Piaget’s emphasis on the importance of the early years for children’s cognitive development. Scientists have found that brain activity develops rapidly in the earliest years of life, and that stimulation from a child’s social environment enhances this development. Conversely, a lack of stimulation impairs it, and children whose parents or other caregivers routinely play with them and talk, sing, and read to them have much better neurological and cognitive development than other children (Riley, San Juan, Klinkner, & Ramminger, 2009). Riley, D., San Juan, R. R., Klinkner, J., & Ramminger, A. (2009). Intellectual development: Connecting science and practice in early childhood settings . St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press. By providing a biological basis for the importance of human stimulation for children, this research underscores both the significance of interaction and the dangers of social isolation. For both biological and social reasons, socialization is not fully possible without extensive social interaction.
    ::皮亚热最近的研究支持皮亚热强调早期儿童认知发展的重要性。 科学家发现大脑活动在生命的最初几年里迅速发展,而儿童社会环境的刺激则会促进这一发展。 相反,缺乏刺激会损害这一发展。 相反,缺乏刺激会损害这一发展,其父母或其他照料者经常与他们玩耍、聊天、唱歌、阅读给他们带来的神经和认知发展比其他儿童(Riley、San Juan、Klinkner、 & Ramminger,2009年)要好得多(R.R.、Klinkner、J. & Ramminger,A.(2009) ) 。 智力发展:在幼儿环境中将科学和实践联系起来。 圣保罗、MN:Redleaf Press。 通过提供人类激励对儿童重要性的生物基础,这一研究强调了互动的重要性和社会孤立的危险。 出于生物和社会原因,没有广泛的社会互动就不可能完全实现社会化。

    Kohlberg, Gilligan, and Moral Development
    ::科尔贝格、吉里根和道德发展

    An important part of children’s reasoning is their ability to distinguish right from wrong and to decide on what is morally correct to do. Psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927–1987) said that children develop their ability to think and act morally through several stages. In the preconventional stage, young children equate what is morally right simply to what keeps them from getting punished. In the conventional stage, adolescents realize that their parents and society have rules that should be followed because they are morally right to follow, not just because disobeying them leads to punishment. At the postconventional stage, which occurs in late adolescence and early adulthood, individuals realize that higher moral standards may supersede those of their own society and even decide to disobey the law in the name of these higher standards. If people fail to reach at least the conventional stage, Kohlberg (1969) Kohlberg, L. (1969). States in the development of moral thought and action . New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. said, they do not develop a conscience and instead might well engage in harmful behavior if they think they will not be punished. Incomplete moral development, Kohlberg concluded, was a prime cause of antisocial behavior.
    ::儿童推理的一个重要部分是他们分辨权利与错的能力,以及决定什么是道德正确的。 心理学家劳伦斯·科尔伯格(Lawrence Kohlberg)(1927-1987年)说,儿童通过几个阶段发展其思维和道德行为的能力。 在常规阶段,幼童把道德上的权利简单地等同于妨碍他们受到惩罚的行为。在常规阶段,青少年认识到他们的父母和社会有规则应该遵循,因为他们在道德上是正确的,而不仅仅是因为不服从他们就会导致惩罚。在后常规阶段,即青少年晚期和成人早期,个人认识到更高的道德标准可能取代他们自己的社会标准,甚至决定以这些更高的标准的名义不遵守法律。如果人们至少达不到常规阶段,科尔堡(1969年)Kohlberg,L.(1969年)。 正在发展道德思想和行动的国家在纽约,霍尔特,里奈特和温斯顿(Nation:霍尔特,Rinehart和温斯顿(Winston)说,他们没有形成一种良知,如果他们认为自己不会受到惩罚,那么他们就可能从事有害的行为。 科伦贝格(Koltberg)的结论是反社会行为的首要原因。

    One problem with Kohlberg’s research was that he studied only boys. That raises the question of whether girls go through similar stages of moral development. Carol Gilligan (1982) Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. concluded that they do not. Whereas boys tend to use formal rules to decide what is right or wrong, she wrote, girls tend to take personal relationships into account. If people break a rule because of some important personal need or because they are trying to help someone, then their behavior may not be wrong. To use other terminology, males tend to use impersonal, universalistic criteria for moral decision making, whereas females tend to use more individual, particularistic criteria.
    ::Kohlberg的研究有一个问题,那就是他只研究男孩,这提出了女孩是否经历类似道德发展阶段的问题。Carol Gilligan(1982年),C.(1982年),C.(1982年),在另一个声音中:心理理论和妇女的发展。剑桥,MA:哈佛大学出版社(Cambridge,MA:哈佛大学出版社 ) , 得出的结论是他们没有。 尽管男孩倾向于使用正式规则来决定什么是对的,什么是错的,但她写道,女孩倾向于考虑个人关系。 如果人们因为某种重要的个人需要或试图帮助某人而打破了一条规则,那么她们的行为可能不会错。 用其他术语来说,男性倾向于使用非人性、普遍性的标准来进行道德决策,而女性则倾向于使用更多的个人、特殊的标准。

    An example from children’s play may illustrate the difference between these two forms of moral reasoning. If boys are playing a sport, say basketball, and a player says he was fouled, they may disagree—sometimes heatedly—over how much contact occurred and whether it indeed was enough to be a foul. In contrast, girls in a similar situation may decide in the interest of having everyone get along to call the play a “do-over.”
    ::儿童游戏的一个例子可以说明这两种道德推理的区别。 如果男孩在玩运动,比如篮球,而一个球员说他被玷污了,他们可能不同意 — — 有时是激烈的 — — 接触次数多,是否确实足够犯规。 相反,处于类似状况的女孩可能决定让每个人都把游戏称为“结束 ” 。

    Carol Gilligan believes that girls take personal relationships into account during their moral development.
    ::卡罗尔·吉利根认为,女孩在道德发展过程中会考虑到个人关系。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商

    Erikson and Identity Development
    ::Erikson和身份发展

    We noted earlier that the development of the self is not limited to childhood but instead continues throughout the life span. More generally, although socialization is most important during childhood and adolescence, it, too, continues throughout the life span. Psychologist Erik Erikson (1902–1990) explicitly recognized this central fact in his theory of identity development (Erikson, 1980). Erikson, E. H. (1980). Identity and the life cycle . New York, NY: Norton. This sort of development, he said, encompasses eight stages of life across the life course. In the first four stages, occurring in succession from birth to age 12, children ideally learn trust, self-control, and independence and also learn how to do tasks whose complexity increases with their age. If all this development goes well, they develop a positive identity, or self-image.
    ::我们早些时候曾指出,自我发展并不局限于童年,而是贯穿整个生命周期。 更一般地说,尽管社会化在童年和青少年时期最为重要,但社会化也在整个生命周期中持续。 心理学家埃里克·埃里克森(1902-1990年)在其身份发展理论(Erikson,1980年)中明确承认这一核心事实(Erikson,1980年 ) 。 Erikson, E.H.(1980年),身份和生命周期。 纽约:诺顿(New York,Nowton )说,这种发展包括整个生命过程的八个阶段。 在出生到12岁的前四个阶段,儿童最好学会信任、自控和独立,并学会如何完成复杂性随年龄增长而增长的任务。 如果所有这些发展进展顺利,他们就会形成积极的认同或自我形象。

    The fifth stage occurs in adolescence and is especially critical, said Erikson, because teenagers often experience an identity crisis . This crisis occurs because adolescence is a transition between childhood and adulthood: adolescents are leaving childhood but have not yet achieved adulthood. As they try to work through all the complexities of adolescence, teenagers may become rebellious at times, but most eventually enter young adulthood with their identities mostly settled. Stages 6, 7, and 8 involve young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood, respectively. In each of these stages, people’s identity development is directly related to their family and work roles. In late adulthood, people reflect on their lives while trying to remain contributing members of society. Stage 8 can be a particularly troubling stage for many people, as they realize their lives are almost over.
    ::Erikson说,第五阶段发生在青春期,特别关键,因为青少年经常经历身份危机。这一危机之所以发生,是因为青春期是童年和成年之间的一个过渡:青少年正在离开童年,但还没有成年。随着青少年试图在青春期的所有复杂阶段中工作,青少年有时会变得叛逆,但大多数最终会进入年轻成年,其身份大多已经稳定下来。第六、第七和第八阶段分别涉及年轻的成年、中成年和晚成年。在这些阶段中,人们的身份发展与他们的家庭和工作角色直接相关。在成年后期,人们思考自己的生活,同时努力为社会做出贡献。第八阶段对许多人来说可能是一个特别令人不安的阶段,因为他们认识到自己的生活已经几乎结束。

    Key Takeaways
    ::密钥外出

    • Cooley and Mead explained how one’s self-concept and self-image develop.
      ::Cooley和Mead解释了自我概念和自我形象是如何发展的。
    • Freud focused on the need to develop a proper balance among the id, ego, and superego.
      ::弗洛伊德的焦点是需要在 id, self, and superego之间发展适当的平衡。
    • Piaget wrote that cognitive development among children and adolescents occurs from four stages of social interaction.
      ::Piaget写道,儿童和青少年的认知发展来自社会互动的四个阶段。
    • Kohlberg wrote about stages of moral development and emphasized the importance of formal rules, while Gilligan emphasized that girls’ moral development takes into account personal relationships.
      ::Kohlberg撰写了道德发展阶段的文章,强调正式规则的重要性,Gilligan则强调女孩的道德发展考虑到个人关系。
    • Erikson’s theory of identity development encompasses eight stages, from infancy through old age.
      ::Erikson的认同发展理论包括从婴儿到老年的八个阶段。