章节大纲

  • 常规

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  • 工作世界

    Objectives
    ::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标

    Describe how the nature of work in the United States has changed over time.
    ::说明美国的工作性质随着时间推移而变化。

    Explain how the composition of the labor force has changed in the United States.
    ::解释美国劳动力的组成是如何变化的。

    Describe the factors that contribute to job satisfaction.
    ::说明有助于工作满意的因素。

    Analyze the ways in which technology has changed the nature of work.
    ::分析技术改变工作性质的方式。


    Universal Generalization
    ::普遍化

    Work is an important aspect of adult life.
    ::工作是成人生活的一个重要方面。

    In American society, many see work as a way to achieve one’s passions, a source of accomplishment and self- esteem.
    ::在美国社会,许多人认为工作是实现个人激情的一种方式,是成就和自尊的源泉。

    It is almost impossible to employ every adult member of society.
    ::几乎不可能雇用社会的每个成年成员。

    In the United States, there have been significant changes to the nature of work.
    ::在美国,工作性质发生了重大变化。


    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    What types of jobs do Americans workers hold?
    ::美国人工人从事何种工作?

    How has the labor force in the U.S. changed?
    ::美国的劳动力是如何变化的?

    What significance does education play for those entering the job market?
    ::教育对进入就业市场的人起什么作用?

    What is outsourcing?  How does it affect the labor force?
    ::什么是外包?它如何影响劳动力?

    What are the factors that contribute to job satisfaction?
    ::哪些因素有助于工作满意度?

    How has technology change the nature of  work?
    ::技术如何改变工作的性质?

    Do you think it is right for workers to surf the web on company time?
    ::你认为工人在公司时间上上网是否合适?

    Work and Labor in the United States
    ::美国的工作和劳工

    Learning Objectives
    ::学习目标

    1. Discuss the changes industrialization brought in the relationship between workers and management.
      ::讨论工业化带来的工人与管理层之间关系的变化。
    2. Outline recent trends in jobs and wages.
      ::概述就业和工资方面的最新趋势。
    3. Assess Marx’s prediction regarding the alienation of work in a capitalist society like the United States.
      ::评估马克思(Marx)对美国这样的资本主义社会中工作疏离的预测。

    The history of work and labor in the United States reflects the change, discussed earlier, in economies from agricultural to industrial to postindustrial. From the time the colonies began in the 1600s until well into the 19th century, the United States was primarily an agricultural society, as people worked on their own farms, and the family was the major unit of economic production. With the advent of industrialization came machines and factories, and the secondary, manufacturing sector became dominant. In the decades after the Civil War, the Industrial Revolution transformed the nation.
    ::美国的工作和劳动力历史反映了早先讨论的从农业到工业到后工业的经济变化。 从殖民地从1600年代开始直到19世纪,美国主要是一个农业社会,因为人们在自己的农场工作,家庭是经济生产的主要单位。 随着工业化的到来,机器和工厂以及第二产业,制造业成为主导。 在内战之后的几十年里,工业革命改变了国家。

    The American Dream has always been based on opportunity. There is a great deal of mythologizing about the energetic upstart who can climb to success based on hard work alone. Common wisdom states that if you study hard, develop good work habits, and graduate high school or, even better, college, then you'll have the opportunity to land a good job. That has long been seen as the key to a successful life. And although the reality has always been more complex than suggested by the myth, the worldwide recession that began in 2008 has made it harder than ever to play by the rules and win the game. The data are grim: From December 2007 through March 2010, 8.2 million workers in the United States lost their jobs, and the unemployment rate grew to almost 10 percent nationally, with some states showing much higher rates (Autor 2010). Times are very challenging for those in the workforce. For those looking to finish their schooling, often with enormous student-debt burdens, it is not just challenging—it is terrifying.
    ::《美国梦》一直以机遇为基础。关于精力充沛的起步者能够单凭辛勤工作而成功的成功,人们有许多神话。 共同智慧指出,如果你努力学习,发展良好的工作习惯,毕业高中或更好的大学,那么你就有机会找到一份好工作。 长期以来,人们一直认为这是成功生活的关键。 尽管现实总是比神话所暗示的更加复杂,但2008年开始的全球衰退使得它比以往任何时候更难遵守规则并赢得比赛。 数据非常严酷:从2007年12月至2010年3月,美国820万工人失业,失业率上升到全国近10%,一些州的失业率也高得多(奥塔2010年 ) 。 对于那些希望完成学业的人来说,他们往往承受着巨大的学生债务负担,但对于那些希望完成学业的人来说,这不仅仅是个挑战 — — 这非常可怕。

    So where did all the jobs go? Will any of them be coming back, and if not, what new ones will there be? How do you find and keep a good job now? These are the kinds of questions people are currently asking about the job market in the United States.     
    ::那么,所有的工作都到哪里去了?他们中是否有人会回来呢?如果没有,又会有什么新的工作?你现在如何找到和保持一份好的工作?这就是人们目前问的关于美国就业市场的问题。


    Notably, jobs in farming are in decline. This is an area where those with less education traditionally could be assured of finding steady, if low-wage, work. With these jobs disappearing, more and more workers will find themselves untrained for the types of employment that are available.
    ::值得注意的是,农业就业正在下降,这一领域传统上教育程度较低的人可以保证找到稳定的工作,如果是低工资的工作的话,随着这些工作消失,越来越多的工人会发现自己没有受过有关现有就业类型的培训。

    Another projected trend in employment relates to the level of education and training required to gain and keep a job. As the chart below shows us, growth rates are higher for those with more education. Those with a professional degree or a master’s degree may expect job growth of 20 and 22 percent respectively, and jobs that require a bachelor’s degree are projected to grow 17 percent. At the other end of the spectrum, jobs that require a high school diploma or equivalent are projected to grow at only 12 percent, while jobs that require less than a high school diploma will grow 14 percent. Quite simply, without a degree, it will be more difficult to find a job. It is worth noting that these projections are based on overall growth across all occupation categories, so obviously there will be variations within different occupational areas. However, once again, those who are the least educated will be the ones least able to fulfill the American Dream. 
    ::就业方面的另一个预测趋势与获得和保持工作所需的教育和培训水平有关。 正如下图所示,那些受过较多教育的人的增长率较高。 那些具有专业学位或硕士学位的人可能预期分别增长20%和22%的工作,而需要学士学位的工作预计将增长17%。 在另一端,需要高中文凭或同等学历的工作预计将仅增长12%,而需要不到高中文凭的工作将增长14%。 简言之,如果没有学位,找到工作将更加困难。 值得注意的是,这些预测是基于所有职业类别的总体增长,因此显然在不同职业领域会有差异。 然而,那些受教育最少的人将再次成为最不能实现美国梦想的人。

    Chart displaying the percent change in employment by education or training category, 2010-2020.

    More education means more jobs (generally). (Graph courtesy of the Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational Outlook Handbook)
    ::更多的教育意味着更多的工作(一般而言)。 (来自劳动统计局《职业展望手册》的格子)

    In the past, rising education levels in the United States had been able to keep pace with the rise in the number of education-dependent jobs. However, since the late 1970s, men have been enrolling in college at a lower rate than women, and graduating at a rate of almost 10 percent less. The lack of male candidates reaching the education levels needed for skilled positions has opened opportunities for women, minorities, and immigrants (Wang 2011).
    ::过去,美国教育水平的提高与依赖教育工作数量的增加保持了同步,然而,自1970年代末以来,男性进入大学的比例一直低于女性,毕业率几乎下降了10%,缺乏达到技术职位所需教育水平的男性候选人为妇女、少数民族和移民创造了机会(Wang,2011年)。

     

    Recent Trends in Jobs and Wages
    ::近期就业和工资趋势

    Recall that the United States has joined other industrial nations in moving into postindustrial economies. If physical prowess and skill with one’s hands were prerequisites for many industrial jobs, mental prowess and communication skills are prerequisites for postindustrial jobs.
    ::回顾美国已经与其他工业国家一起进入后工业经济体。 如果体力和掌握个人手的技能是许多工业工作的先决条件,那么精神能力和沟通技能是后工业工作的先决条件。

    This move to a postindustrial economy has been a mixed blessing for many Americans. The information age has obvious benefits too numerous to mention, but there has also been a cost to the many workers whom postindustrialization and the globalization of the economy have left behind. Since the 1980s many manufacturing companies moved their plants from U.S. cities to sites in the developing world in Asia and elsewhere, a problem called . This shift has helped fuel a loss of more than 1.5 million manufacturing jobs in the United States (Mishel, Bernstein, & Shierholz, 2009). Mishel, L., Bernstein, J., & Shierholz, H. (2009). The state of working America 2008/2009 . Ithaca, NY: ILR Press [An imprint of Cornell University Press].
    ::对许多美国人来说,这一向后工业化经济的转变是喜忧参半的。信息时代显然带来太多好处,无法一一提及,但是,后工业化和经济全球化遗留下来的许多工人也付出了代价。自1980年代以来,许多制造业公司将其工厂从美国城市迁往亚洲和其他地方的发展中世界,这是一个被称为“问题”的问题。这一转变帮助美国损失了150多万个制造业工作岗位(Mishel、Bernstein、和Shierholz,2009年)。Mishel、L.、Bernstein、J.、和Shierholz、H.(2009年)。美国2008/2009年,Ithaca,纽约:ILR Press[Cornell大学出版社印 。

    A related problem is , in which U.S. companies hire workers overseas for customer care, billing services, and other jobs that Americans used to do. China, India, and the Philippines, which have skilled workforces relatively fluent in English, are the primary nations to which U.S. companies outsource their work. At least 4 million jobs are estimated to have been transferred to these nations from the United States and other Western countries (Thomas, 2009). Thomas, M. (2009, July 16). Outsourcing statistics: What figures will tell you. EzineArticles . Retrieved from Many call centers employ workers in India, and when you call up a computer company or some other business for technical help, you might very well talk with an Indian. Because these call centers have cost Americans jobs and also because Americans and Indians often have trouble understanding each other’s accents, outsourcing has been very controversial in the decade since it became popular.
    ::一个相关的问题是,美国公司雇用海外工人从事客户护理、计费服务和其他美国人曾经从事的工作。 中国、印度和菲律宾拥有熟练的英语劳动力,它们是美国公司外包工作的主要国家。 据估计,至少有400万个工作从美国和其他西方国家转移到这些国家(Thomas,2009年,2009年,7月 16 ) Thomas,Thomas,M. 外部承包统计:数字会告诉你什么。 Ezine articles。从许多呼叫中心检索到印度的工人,当你打电话到一家计算机公司或其他企业寻求技术支持时,你很可能和印度人交谈。 由于这些呼叫中心花费了美国人的工作成本,也因为美国人和印第安人常常难以理解对方的口音,外包自其流行以来的十年中就引起了很大的争议。

    All these problems reflect a more general shift in the United States from goods-producing jobs to service jobs. Although some of these service jobs, such as many in the financial and computer industries, are high paying, many are in low-wage occupations, such as restaurant and clerical work, that pay less than the goods-producing jobs they replaced. Partly as a result, the average hourly wage (in 2007 dollars) in the United States for workers (excluding managers and supervisors) rose only from $16.88 in 1979 to $17.42 in 2007. This change represented an increase of just 0.1% per year during that three-decade span (Mishel, Bernstein, & Shierholz, 2009). Mishel, L., Bernstein, J., & Shierholz, H. (2009). The state of working America 2008/2009 . Ithaca, NY: ILR Press [An imprint of Cornell University Press].
    ::所有这些问题都反映了美国从商品生产岗位向服务岗位的更普遍转变,尽管其中一些服务岗位,如许多金融和计算机行业的薪酬较高,但许多都从事低工资职业,如餐馆和办事员工作,其工资低于其替代的商品生产岗位,部分结果是,美国工人(不包括管理人员和主管)的平均小时工资(2007年美元)从1979年的16.88美元增加到2007年的17.42美元,在30年中,这一变化意味着每年仅增加0.1%(Mishel、Bernstein、Shierholz、2009Michel、L、Bernstein、J.和Shierholz、H.(2009年),美国工作状况2008/2009年。 Ithaca, NY:IL Press[Cornell大学出版社印 。

    These wage figures mask an important gender difference. Men’s median hourly wages dropped (in 2007 dollars) by 4.4% from 1979 to 2007, while women’s wages rose by 24.4% (while still remaining $3.11 less per hour than men’s wages in 2007) (Mishel, Bernstein, & Shierholz, 2009). Mishel, L., Bernstein, J., & Shierholz, H. (2009). The state of working America 2008/2009 . Ithaca, NY: ILR Press [An imprint of Cornell University Press]. Although, women have been catching up to men in wages, some of this catching up is due to the decline in male wages.
    ::这些数字掩盖了重要的性别差异。 1979年至2007年,男性平均小时工资下降了4.4%(2007年美元),而女性工资上升了24.4%(2007年仍比男性每小时工资少3.11美元)(Mishel, Bernstein, & Shierholz, 2009年);Mishel, L., Bernstein, J., & Shierholz, H.(2009年);美国工作州,2008/2009年;Ithaca, NY:IL Press [Cornell大学出版社的印记 ) 。 尽管女性工资一直在追赶男性,但部分追赶是因为男性工资下降。

    Wage changes in recent years also depend on what social class someone is in. While the average compensation of chief executive officers (CEOs) of large corporations grew by 167% from 1989 to 2007, the average compensation of the typical worker grew by only 10%. Another way of understanding this disparity is perhaps more striking. In 1965, CEOs earned 24 times more than the typical worker; in 2007 they earned 275 times more than the typical worker (Mishel, Bernstein, & Shierholz, 2009). Mishel, L., Bernstein, J., & Shierholz, H. (2009). The state of working America 2008/2009 . Ithaca, NY: ILR Press [An imprint of Cornell University Press].
    ::最近几年的工资变化也取决于某个人所处的社会阶层。虽然大公司首席执行官(CEO)的平均报酬从1989年至2007年增长了167 % , 但典型工人的平均报酬仅增长了10 % 。 另一种理解这种差距的方法也许更加惊人。1965年,CEO的收入比典型工人多24倍;2007年,他们的收入比典型工人(Milshel、Bernstein、和Shierholz,2009年)多275倍(Mishel、L.、Bernstein、J.、和Shierholz,H.(2009年)。美国工作州2008/2009年。Ithaca,纽约:ILR Press[康奈尔大学出版社印 。


    When people lose their jobs during a recession or in a changing job market, it takes longer to find a new one, if they can find one at all. If they do, it is often at a much lower wage or not full time. This can force people into poverty. In the United States, we tend to have what is called relative poverty, defined as being unable to live the lifestyle of the average person in your country. This must be contrasted with the absolute poverty that can be found in underdeveloped countries, defined as being barely able, or unable, to afford basic necessities such as food (Byrns 2011).
    ::当人们在经济衰退或变化的就业市场中失去工作时,如果能找到新的工作,需要更长的时间才能找到新的工作,如果能找到,工资往往要低得多,或者不是全职工作。这可能会迫使人们陷入贫困。在美国,我们往往有所谓的相对贫困,被定义为无法生活在贵国普通人的生活方式中。这必须与欠发达国家所存在的绝对贫困形成对比,这些国家被定义为几乎无力或无力支付食物等基本必需品(Byrns,2011年)。

    We cannot even rely on unemployment statistics to provide a clear picture of total unemployment in the United States. First, unemployment statistics do not take into account underemployment , a state in which a person accepts a lower paying, lower status job than their education and experience qualifies them to perform. Second, unemployment statistics only count those:
    ::我们甚至不能依靠失业统计来清楚地反映美国的总体失业情况。 首先,失业统计没有考虑到就业不足的情况,即一个人接受报酬较低、地位低于其教育和经验的工作,而其从事工作的资格低于其教育和经验。 其次,失业统计只计算以下因素:

    1. who are actively looking for work
      ::积极寻找工作的人
    2. who have not earned income from a job in the past four weeks
      ::过去四周内未从工作赚取收入的人
    3. who are ready, willing, and able to work
      ::准备、愿意和能够工作的人

    The unemployment statistics provided by the U.S. government are rarely accurate, because many of the unemployed become discouraged and stop looking for work. Not only that, but these statistics undercount the youngest and oldest workers, the chronically unemployed (e.g., homeless), and seasonal and migrant workers.
    ::美国政府提供的失业统计数据很少准确,因为许多失业者气馁,不再寻找工作。 不仅如此,这些统计数据低估了最年轻和最年长的工人、长期失业者(如无家可归者)以及季节工和移徙工人。

    A certain amount of unemployment is a direct result of the relative inflexibility of the labor market, considered structural unemployment , which describes when there is a societal level of disjuncture between people seeking jobs and the available jobs. This mismatch can be geographic (they are hiring in California, but most unemployed live in Alabama), technological (skilled workers are replaced by machines, as in the auto industry), or can result from any sudden change in the types of jobs people are seeking versus the types of companies that are hiring.
    ::某种程度的失业是劳动力市场相对僵化的直接结果,被认为是结构性失业,它描述了寻找工作的人与现有工作之间的社会脱节程度。 这种脱节可以是地理上的(他们在加利福尼亚就业,但大多数失业者生活在阿拉巴马州 ) 、 技术上的(熟练工人被机器取代,如汽车业 ) , 也可以是人们寻找的工作类型与雇用的公司类型发生任何突然变化的结果。

    Because of the high standard of living in the United States, many people are working at full-time jobs but are still poor by the standards of relative poverty. They are the working poor. The United States has a higher percentage of working poor than many other developed countries (Brady, Fullerton and Cross 2010). In terms of employment, the Bureau of Labor Statistics defines the working poor as those who have spent at least 27 weeks working or looking for work, and yet remain below the poverty line. Many of the facts about the working poor are as expected: Those who work only part time are more likely to be classified as working poor than those with full-time employment; higher levels of education lead to less likelihood of being among the working poor; and those with children under 18 are four times more likely than those without children to fall into this category. In 2009, the working poor included 10.4 million Americans, up almost 17 percent from 2008 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2011).
    ::由于美国生活水平高,许多人从事全职工作,但相对贫困水平仍然很差,他们是在业穷人。美国工作穷人的比例高于其他许多发达国家(布拉迪、富勒顿和克罗斯,2010年)。在就业方面,劳动统计局将工作穷人定义为至少工作27周或寻找工作的人,但仍然低于贫困线。许多关于工作穷人的事实与预期相同:仅从事非全时工作的人比全职就业的人更有可能被归类为在业穷人;教育水平提高导致在业穷人的可能性降低;有18岁以下儿童的人比没有子女的人更有可能成为这一类别的人多四倍。2009年,工作穷人包括1040万美国人,比2008年增加了近17%(美国劳动统计局,2011年)。

    Graph depicting the working poverty vs. non-working poverty rates, distributed by country.

    A higher percentage of the people living in poverty in the United States have jobs compared to other developed nations.
    ::与其他发达国家相比,美国生活在贫困中的人有工作的比例更高。



    The U.S. Labor Force
    ::美国劳动大军

    The consists of all noninstitutionalized civilians 16 years of age or older who work for pay or are looking for work. The civilian labor force (hereafter labor force ) consists of about 154 million people, or almost two-thirds of the population, including about 72% of men and 59% of women (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009). Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2009). Employment and earnings online . Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved from noted that women’s labor force participation soared during the last few decades. This general increase is even steeper for married women with children under 6 years of age: in 2007 almost 62% of such women were in the labor force, compared to less than 19% in 1960 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010), U.S. Census Bureau. (2009). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2009 . Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from a threefold difference (see ).
    ::16岁或16岁以上从事有薪工作或寻找工作的非机构化平民构成。民事劳动力(以下简称劳动力)由大约1.54亿人组成,几乎占人口的三分之二,包括大约72%的男性和59%的女性(劳动统计局,2009年)。《劳工统计局》(2009年)。《就业和收入在线》,华盛顿特区:劳动统计局,美国劳工部。从注意到女性劳动力参与在过去几十年中猛增中发现。对于有6岁以下子女的已婚妇女来说,这一总体增长甚至更为迅猛:2007年,这类妇女中几乎有62%在劳动力队伍中,而1960年(美国人口普查局,2010年)不到19 % ,美国人口普查局(2009年),美国统计摘要:2009年,华盛顿特区:美国政府印刷局。从三个差异(见美国统计局,2009年)。

    Labor Force Participation Rate, Percentage of Married Women with Children Younger Than 6 Years of Age, 1960–2007
    ::1960-2007年劳动力参与率,有6岁及6岁以下子女已婚妇女的百分比(1960-2007年)

    Source: Data from U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2010 . Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from . 
    ::资料来源:美国人口普查局数据(2010年),《美国统计摘要:2010年》,华盛顿特区:美国政府印刷局。

    Occupations
    ::职业

    Unemployment
    ::失业失业

    Unemployment is a fact of life. There will always be people laid off or fired, who voluntarily quit their jobs, or who just graduated school and are still looking for work. But most unemployed people are involuntarily unemployed, and for them the financial and psychological consequences can be devastating.
    ::失业是生活中的现实。 总会有人被解雇或被解雇,有人自愿辞去工作,有人刚毕业,还有人仍在寻找工作。 但大多数失业人员都是非自愿失业,对他们来说,经济和心理后果可能是灾难性的。

    Unemployment rates rise and fall with the economy, and the national unemployment rate was as high as 10.2% in October 2009 amid the Great Recession that began almost two years earlier; it was still 9.8% in November 2010, amounting to some 15.1 million people. But whether unemployment is high or low, it always varies by race and ethnicity, with African American and Latino unemployment rates higher than the white rate (see ). Unemployment is also higher for younger people than for older people. In June 2010, 25.7% of all teenagers in the labor force (aged 16–19) were unemployed, a figure almost three times higher than that for adults. The unemployment rate for African Americans in this age group was a very high 39.9%, considerably greater than the 23.2% figure for whites in this age group (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2010). Employment and earnings online . Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved from
    ::2009年10月,在近两年前开始的大衰退期间,全国失业率高达10.2 % , 2009年10月,失业率高达10.2 % ; 2010年11月,失业率仍为9.8 % , 约1 510万人。 但无论失业率高低,都因种族和族裔而异,非洲和拉丁美洲的失业率也高于白人(见);年轻人的失业率也高于老年人。 2010年6月,劳动力队伍中25.7%的青少年(16-19岁)失业,比成年人高出近三倍。 这个年龄组的非裔美国人失业率非常高39.9%,大大高于白人这一年龄组的23.2%(劳工统计局,2010年)。劳工统计局(2010年)。就业和收入在线。华盛顿:劳工统计局,美国劳工部。


      Race, Ethnicity, and Unemployment Rate, June 2010
    ::种族、族裔和失业率,2010年6月

    Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010). Employment & earnings online. Retrieved from .  
    ::资料来源:劳工统计局(2010年),在线就业和收入。

    Unemployment figures are misleading in an important respect, as they do not include people who are underemployed . Underemployment includes unemployed and also two other types of people: (a) those who are working part time but who want to work full time and (b) those who have stopped looking for work because they have not been able to find a job. Many economists think that underemployment provides a more accurate measure than unemployment of the number of people with employment problems. For example, in June 2010, when the unemployment rate was 9.5% and 14.6 million people were officially unemployed, the underemployment rate was 16.5%, equal to more than 25 million people. Reflecting the racial/ethnic disparity in unemployment, 23.2% of Latino workers and 23.5% of African American workers were underemployed, compared to only 13.8% of white workers (Economic Policy Institute, 2010). Economic Policy Institute. (2010). Economy track. Retrieved from Reflecting on the great amount of underemployment during the Great Recession, one economist commented, “When you combine the long-term unemployed with those who are dropping out and those who are working part time because they can’t find anything else, it is just far beyond anything we’ve seen in the job market since the 1930s” (Herbert 2010, p. A25). Herbert, B. (2010, August 10). The horror show. The New York Times , p. A25.
    ::失业数字在一个重要的方面是误导性的,因为失业数字不包括未充分就业的人。失业数字不包括失业人口。就业不足包括失业人员和其他两类人伤心a) 非全时工作但希望全职工作的人,以及(b) 因无法找到工作而停止寻找工作的人。许多经济学家认为,就业不足比有就业问题的人数提供了比失业人数更准确的衡量标准。例如,在2010年6月,失业率为9.5%和1 460万人的官方失业,就业不足率为16.5%,相当于2 500万人以上。 反映失业中的种族/族裔差距,拉丁美洲工人的23.2%和非洲裔美国人的23.5%是就业不足的,而白人工人的这一比例仅为13.8%(经济政策研究所,2010年)。 经济政策研究所(2010年)。从反思大萧条期间大量就业不足的情况后,一位经济学家评论说,“当你将长期失业与那些正在辍学的人和那些因为找不到其他原因而正在从事部分工作的人结合起来时,2010年8月B号时,我们看到的是恐怖的“2010年8月25号”。

    Unemployment rises when the economy falters and that race and ethnicity affect the probability of being unemployed. These two facts provide evidence supporting the sociological imagination . As C. Wright Mills (1959) Mills, C. W. (1959). The sociological imagination . London, England: Oxford University Press. emphasized in his original discussion of this concept, unemployment is best viewed more as a public issue than as a personal trouble. When so many people are unemployed during an economic recession and when there is such striking evidence of higher unemployment rates among the persons of color who have the least opportunity for the education and training needed to obtain and keep a job, it is evident that high unemployment rates reflect a public issue rather than just a collection of public troubles.
    ::当经济不景气,种族和族裔影响失业的可能性时失业就会上升,这两个事实为社会想象提供了证据,如C.Wright Mills(1959年),C.W.(1959年),C.Mills(1959年),C.W.(1959年)。 社会想象力,伦敦,英国:牛津大学出版社(Oxford University Press)在最初讨论这一概念时强调,失业问题最好被视为公共问题,而不是个人问题。当许多人在经济衰退期间失业,而且有如此惊人的证据表明,在最没有机会获得和保持工作所需的教育和培训的肤色者中失业率较高时,显然高失业率反映的是公共问题,而不仅仅是一系列公共问题。


    The Impact of Unemployment
    ::失业的影响

    Long-term unemployment often causes various social and psychological difficulties.
    ::长期失业往往造成各种社会和心理困难。

    Source: Photo courtesy of Michael Raphael at the Federal Emergency Management Agency, .
    ::资料来源:Michael Raphael在联邦紧急事务管理局照片,

    Although the news article that began this chapter gave us a heartrending account of a woman experiencing long-term unemployment, survey data also provide harsh evidence of the social and psychological effects of being unemployed. In July 2010, the Pew Research Center issued a report based on a survey of 810 adults who were currently unemployed or had been unemployed since the Great Recession began in December 2007 and 1,093 people who had never been unemployed during the recession (Morin & Kochhar, 2010). Morin, R. and Kochhar, R. (2010). Lost income, lost friends—and loss of self-respect: The impact of long-term unemployment . Washington, DC: Pew Research Center. The report’s title, Lost Income, Lost Friends—and Loss of Self-Respect , summarized its major findings. Of those who had been unemployed for at least 6 months ( long-term unemployment ), 44% said that the recession had caused “major changes” in their lives, versus only 20% of those who had never been unemployed. More than half of the long-term unemployed said their family income had declined, and more than 40% said that their family relations had been strained and that they had lost contact with close friends. In another finding, 38% said they had “lost some self-respect” from being unemployed. One-third said they were finding it difficult to pay their rent or mortage, compared to only 16% of those who had never been unemployed during the recession. Half had borrowed money from family or friends to pay bills, versus only 18% of the never unemployed. Of all the people who had been unemployed, almost half had experienced sleep difficulties, and 5% had experienced drug or alcohol problems. All these numbers paint a distressing picture of the social and psychological impact of unemployment during the Great Recession that began in late 2007.
    ::虽然从本章开始的新闻文章给我们一个长期失业妇女令人心碎的描述,但调查数据也为我们提供了失业的社会和心理影响的严酷证据。 2010年7月,皮尤研究中心根据对810名目前失业或自2007年12月大衰退开始以来失业的成年人和1 093名在衰退期间从未失业的人的调查(Morin & Kochhar, 2010年)。莫林、R.和Kochhar, R. (2010年)。 失去的亲友、失去的朋友和失去的自尊:长期失业的影响。 长期失业的影响。华盛顿:Pew研究中心。报告的标题是“失去的收入 失去的朋友 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

    Job Satisfaction
    ::工作满意程度

     
    ::

    Recall that Karl Marx thought that job alienation was a major problem in industrial societies. Following up on his concern, social scientists have tried to determine the extent of worker alienation and job satisfaction, as well as the correlates of these two attitudes (Bockerman & Ilmakunnas, 2009). Bockerman, P., & Ilmakunnas, P. (2009). Job disamenities, job satisfaction, quit intentions, and actual separations: Putting the pieces together. Industrial Relations, 48 (1), 73–96. They generally find that American workers like their jobs much more than Marx anticipated, but also that the extent to which they like their jobs depends on the income their jobs bring, the degree of autonomy they enjoy in their jobs, and other factors.
    ::回顾卡尔·马克思认为工作疏离是工业社会的一个主要问题。 社会科学家在他的关注之后试图确定工人疏离和工作满意度的程度,以及这两种态度的相关程度(Bockerman & Ilmakunnas, 2009年 ) , Bokerman, P, & Ilmakunnas, P. (2009年 ) 。 工作不齐全、工作满意度、辞职意向和实际分居:将问题放在一起。 劳资关系,48(1), 73-96。 他们通常发现美国工人喜欢他们的工作比马克思预期的要多得多,但他们喜欢工作的程度取决于他们的工作带来的收入、他们在工作中享有的自主程度以及其他因素。

    One way of measuring job satisfaction is simply to ask people, “On the whole, how satisfied are you with the work you do?” The General Social Survey uses precisely this question, and 85.8% of respondents (2008 data) say they are satisfied with their jobs, with only 14.1% saying they are dissatisfied. This latter figure is probably lower than Marx would have predicted for a capitalist society like the United States.
    ::衡量工作满意度的一个方法就是简单地问人们 , “ 总的来说,你对你的工作有多满意? ” 。 社会总调查精确地使用这个问题,85.8%的受访者说他们对工作满意,只有14.1%的人说他们不满意。 后一数字可能低于马克思(Marx)对像美国这样的资本主义社会的预测。

      
    ::

    One possible reason for the low amount of job dissatisfaction, and one that Marx did not foresee, is that workers develop friendships in their workplace (McGuire, 2007). McGuire, G. M. (2007). Intimate work: A typology of the social support that workers provide to their network members. Work and Occupations, 34 , 125–147. Coworkers discuss all kinds of topics with each other, including personal matters, sports, and political affairs, and they often will invite other coworkers over to their homes or go out with them to a movie or a restaurant. Such friendships can lead workers to like their jobs more than they otherwise would and help overcome the alienation they would feel without the friendships. Such coworker friendships are quite common, as research finds that about half of all workers have at least one close friend who is a coworker (Marks, 1994). Marks, S. R. (1994). Intimacy in the public realm: The case of co-workers. Social Forces, 72 , 843–858.
    ::工作不满程度低以及马克思没有预见到的原因之一是工人在工作场所发展友谊(McGuire,2007年)。McGuire,G.M.(2007年)。 亲密的工作:工人向网络成员提供社会支持的类型。 工作和职业,34,125-147. 同事讨论各种议题,包括个人事务、体育和政治事务,他们经常邀请其他同事到家里或和他们一起去看电影或餐馆。这种友谊可以让工人更喜欢他们的工作,帮助克服他们没有友谊会感到的疏远。这种同事的友谊非常常见,因为研究发现,大约一半工人至少有一位亲密朋友是同事(Marks,1994年)。Marks,S.R.(1994年)。 在公共领域,他们经常邀请其他同事到他们家去看电影或餐馆。 这些友谊可以让工人更喜欢他们的工作,并帮助他们克服没有友谊会感到的疏远。这些同事的友谊非常常见,因为研究表明,大约有一半的工人至少有一位亲密朋友(Marks,1994年)。Marks,Marks,S.R.R.(1994年)。

    Friendships among employees are very common and may contribute to high levels of satisfaction with one’s job in the United States.
    ::雇员之间的友谊非常普遍,可能使人们对在美国的工作非常满意。

    © Thinkstock 
    ::智商

    http://2012books.
    ::http:/2012books.


    Key Takeaways
    ::密钥外出

    • Conflict between labor and management was intense in the United States after the advent of industrialization. Strikes and labor-related violence were common after the Civil War.
      ::在美国,劳动和管理层之间的冲突在工业化出现后十分激烈。 内战后罢工和与劳动有关的暴力是常见的。
    • The move to a postindustrial economy has resulted in a loss of jobs in the United States, thanks in part to capital flight and outsourcing.
      ::向后工业化经济的转变导致美国失业,部分原因是资本外逃和外包。
    • Job satisfaction is higher and worker alienation lower than what Karl Marx would have predicted for the United States, thanks in part to workplace friendships.
      ::工作满意度较高,工人疏离比Karl Marx对美国的预测要低,部分原因是工作场所的友谊。
    • Unemployment has soared because of the Great Recession that began in late 2007. Joblessness has significant consequences for the financial and psychological well-being of the millions of people who are unemployed.
      ::由于2007年末开始的大衰退,失业急剧上升,失业对数百万失业人口的财政和心理福祉产生了重大影响。
    • Two significant problems in the workplace are employee theft and workplace violence. Both problems are common and together have serious repercussions for the financial health of businesses and the physical health of employees, respectively.
      ::工作场所的两个重大问题是雇员盗窃和工作场所暴力,这两个问题共同存在,对企业的财务健康和雇员的身体健康分别产生严重影响。

    http://2012books.
    ::http:/2012books.