8.2 犯罪
章节大纲
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Objectives
::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标Explain the major types of crimes that are committed in the United States.
::解释在美国实施的主要犯罪类型。Analyze the effects of crime on a society.
::分析犯罪对社会的影响。Explain the characteristics of the American criminal- justice system.
::解释美国刑事司法系统的特点。
Universal Generalizations
::普遍化Crime is committed in every society.
::每个社会都犯罪。In the United States, crime affects everyone some as victims and some as criminals.
::在美国,犯罪行为影响到每个人,有些人是受害者,有些人是罪犯。The majority of Americans are affected by crime as bystanders.
::大多数美国人作为旁观者受到犯罪的影响。Many consider crime to be a significant social problem.
::许多人认为犯罪是一个重大的社会问题。Most victims of violence are African Americans.
::大多数暴力受害者是非裔美国人。Property crimes are much more common than violent crimes.
::财产犯罪比暴力犯罪更为常见。
Guiding Questions
::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问Why do some people commit acts of crime?
::为什么有些人犯下罪行?How does society look upon people who commit crime?
::社会如何看待犯罪的人?What are the main types of crime committed in the U.S.?
::在美国实施的主要犯罪类型是什么?What is the purpose of crime statistics?
::犯罪统计的目的是什么?How does organized crime affect the stability of a society?
::有组织犯罪如何影响社会的稳定?What role does the American criminal- justice system play in stabilizing society?
::美国刑事司法系统在稳定社会方面发挥什么作用?Crime and Criminals
::犯罪和罪犯Learning Objectives
::学习目标-
Describe how gender and race affect public opinion about crime.
::说明性别和种族如何影响公众对犯罪的看法。 -
Explain problems in the accurate measurement of crime.
::解释在准确衡量犯罪方面存在的问题。 -
Describe the demographic backgrounds (race, gender, age, location) of conventional criminals.
::描述传统罪犯的人口背景(种族、性别、年龄、地点)。 -
Be familiar with examples of white-collar crime and with the various harms of such crime.
::熟悉白领犯罪的例子和此类犯罪的各种危害。 -
Explain the arguments over laws prohibiting victimless crime.
::解释有关禁止无受害者犯罪的法律的论点。
In the United States, one way or another people are affected by crime. Some people are victims others are criminals and some are both. Still the majority of Americans are affected by crime as bystanders. Many people consider crime to play a significant role in societal problems.
::在美国,犯罪以这样或那样的方式影响到人们,有些人是受害者,有些人是罪犯,有些人是罪犯,有些人是罪犯,还有人都是罪犯,大多数美国人作为旁观者受到犯罪的影响。 许多人认为犯罪在社会问题中起着重要作用。Although deviance is a violation of social norms, it’s not always punishable, and it’s not necessarily bad. Crime , on the other hand, is a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions. Walking to class backwards is a deviant behavior. Driving with a blood alcohol percentage over the state’s limit is a crime. Like other forms of deviance, however, ambiguity exists concerning what constitutes a crime and whether all crimes are, in fact, “bad” and deserve punishment. For example, during the 1960s, civil rights activists often violated laws intentionally as part of their effort to bring about racial equality. In hindsight, we recognize that the laws that deemed many of their actions crimes—for instance, Rosa Parks taking a seat in the “whites only” section of the bus—were inconsistent with social equality.
::尽管偏离是违反社会规范的行为,但它并不总是可以惩罚的,也不一定是坏的。 另一方面,犯罪是一种违反官方法律的行为,通过正式制裁予以惩罚。 向后退一步是反常行为。 驾车酗酒比例超过州限是一种犯罪。 但是,与其他形式的偏离行为一样,在什么构成犯罪以及所有犯罪是否事实上都是“坏”和值得惩罚的问题上,也存在模糊不清之处。 比如,在1960年代,民权活动家常常违反蓄意的法律,作为其实现种族平等努力的一部分。 事后看来,我们认识到认为他们许多犯罪行为的法律 — — 比如罗莎·帕克斯占据公共汽车“白色”部分的座位 — — 与社会平等不相符。All societies have informal and formal ways of maintaining social control. Within these systems of norms, societies have legal codes that maintain formal social control through laws, which are rules adopted and enforced by a political authority. Those who violate these rules incur negative formal sanctions. Normally, punishments are relative to the degree of the crime and the importance to society of the value underlying the law. As we will see, however, there are other factors that influence criminal sentencing.
::所有社会都有维持社会控制的非正式和正式方式,在这些规范体系中,社会有通过法律维持正式社会控制的法律准则,法律是政治当局通过和执行的规则,违反这些规则的人受到消极的正式制裁,通常惩罚与犯罪程度和法律价值对社会的重要性有关,但是,我们可以看到,还有其他因素影响刑事判决。Types of Crimes Overview
::犯罪类型类型概览Not all crimes are given equal weight. Society generally socializes its members to view certain crimes as more severe than others. For example, most people would consider murdering someone to be far worse than stealing a wallet and would expect a murderer to be punished more severely than a thief. In modern American society, crimes are classified as one of two types based on their severity. Violent crimes (also known as “crimes against a person”) are based on the use of force or the threat of force. Rape, murder, and armed robbery fall under this category. Nonviolent crimes involve the destruction or theft of property, but do not use force or the threat of force. Because of this, they are also sometimes called “property crimes.” Larceny, car theft, and vandalism are all types of nonviolent crimes. If you use a crowbar to break into a car, you are committing a nonviolent crime; if you mug someone with the crowbar, you are committing a violent crime .
::社会一般将其成员视为某些罪行比其他罪行更严重。例如,大多数人会认为谋杀某人远比偷窃钱包更糟糕,并期望杀人犯比小偷受到更严厉的惩罚。在现代美国社会,犯罪根据其严重程度被归类为两类犯罪之一。暴力犯罪(又称“针对某人的犯罪”)是基于使用武力或威胁使用武力。强奸、谋杀和武装抢劫属于这一类别。非暴力犯罪涉及破坏或盗窃财产,但不使用武力或威胁使用武力。由于这一原因,它们有时也被称为“财产犯罪 ” 。Larceny、汽车盗窃和破坏他人行为都是各种非暴力犯罪。如果你使用棍棒闯进汽车,你就犯下非暴力犯罪;如果你用棍棒抢劫某人,你就犯下暴力犯罪。When we think of crime, we often picture street crime , or offenses committed by ordinary people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces. An often overlooked category is corporate crime-white collar crime , crime committed by white-collar workers in a business environment. Embezzlement, insider trading, and identity theft are all types of corporate crime. Although these types of offenses rarely receive the same amount of media coverage as street crimes, they can be far more damaging. The current economic recession in the United States is the ultimate result of a financial collapse triggered by corporate crime.
::当我们想到犯罪时,我们常常想象街头犯罪,或者普通人对他人或组织所犯的罪行,通常是在公共场所。 一个经常被忽视的类别是公司犯罪-白领犯罪、白领工人在商业环境中犯下的罪行。 贪污、内幕交易和身份盗窃都是各种类型的公司犯罪。 尽管这类罪行很少得到与街头犯罪相同的媒体报道,但它们可能更具破坏性。 美国当前的经济衰退是公司犯罪引发的金融崩溃的最终结果。An often-debated third type of crime is victimless crime. These are called victimless because the perpetrator is not explicitly harming another person. As opposed to battery or theft, which clearly have a victim, a crime like drinking a beer at age 20 or selling a sexual act do not result in injury to anyone other than the individual who engages in them, although they are illegal. While some claim acts like these are victimless, others argue that they actually do harm society. Prostitution may foster abuse toward women by clients or pimps. Drug use may increase the likelihood of employee absences. Such debates highlight how the deviant and criminal nature of actions develops through ongoing public discussion.
::经常辩论的第三类犯罪是无受害人犯罪,这些犯罪被称为无受害人犯罪,因为犯罪人没有明确伤害他人;与显然有受害人的殴打或盗窃罪相比,20岁喝酒或出售啤酒等犯罪不会对从事此类犯罪的个人以外的任何人造成伤害,尽管这些犯罪行为是非法的;虽然有些声称行为没有受害人,但另一些声称这些行为确实危害社会;卖淫可能助长嫖客或皮条客虐待妇女;吸毒可能增加雇员缺勤的可能性;此类辩论突出说明了行为异常和犯罪性质如何通过正在进行的公共讨论而发展。Hate Crimes
::仇恨仇恨犯罪Attacks based on a person’s race, religion, or other characteristics are known as hate crimes . Hate crimes in the United States evolved from the time of early European settlers and their violence toward Native Americans. Such crimes weren’t investigated until the early 1900s, when the Ku Klux Klan began to draw national attention for its activities against blacks and other groups. The term “hate crime,” however, didn’t become official until the1980s (Federal Bureau of Investigations 2011).
::基于一个人的种族、宗教或其他特征的攻击被称为仇恨犯罪。 美国的仇恨犯罪从早期的欧洲定居者及其对土著美国人的暴力演变而来。 这种犯罪直到19世纪初才被调查,直到19世纪初三K党开始引起全国关注其针对黑人和其他群体的活动。 然而,“仇恨犯罪”一词直到1980年代才成为官方(联邦调查局,2011年 ) 。An average of 195,000 Americans fall victim to hate crimes each year, but fewer than five percent ever report the crime (FBI 2010). The majority of hate crimes are racially motivated, but many are based on religious (especially anti-Semitic) prejudice (FBI 2010). After incidents like the murder of Matthew Shepard in Wyoming in 1998 and the tragic suicide of Rutgers University student Tyler Clementi in 2010, there has been a growing awareness of hate crimes based on sexual orientation.
::平均每年有195,000名美国人成为仇恨犯罪的受害者,但从未报告过这一罪行(FBI,2010年)不到5%。 大多数仇恨犯罪出于种族动机,但许多基于宗教(特别是反犹太主义)偏见(FBI,2010年 ) 。 在1998年怀俄明州Matthew Shepard被谋杀以及2010年Rutgers大学学生Tyler Clementi惨遭自杀事件之后,人们越来越意识到基于性取向的仇恨犯罪。
In the United States, there were 8,336 reported victims of hate crimes in 2009. This represents less than five percent of the number of people who claimed to be victims of hate crimes when surveyed. (Graph courtesy of FBI 2010)
::在美国,2009年报告的仇恨犯罪受害者有8 336人,不到调查时声称是仇恨犯罪受害者人数的5%。 (2010年联邦调查局提供的图示)。
Crime and Public Opinion
::犯罪和公众舆论One thing we know is that the American public is very concerned about crime. In a 2009 Gallup Poll, about 55% said crime is an “extremely” or “very” serious problem in the United States, and in other national surveys, about one-third of Americans said they would be afraid to walk alone in their neighborhoods at night (Maguire & Pastore, 2009; Saad, 2008). Maguire, K., & Pastore, A. L. (2009). Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics . Retrieved from ; Saad, L. (2008). Perceptions of crime problem remain curiously negative. Retrieved from
::我们知道的一件事是,美国公众非常关注犯罪。 在2009年的盖洛普波尔(Gallup Poll ) 中,大约55%的人说犯罪在美国是一个“极端”或“非常”的严重问题。 在其他国家调查中,大约三分之一的美国人说他们害怕晚上在自己的社区单独行走(Maguire & Pastore,2009年;Saad,2008年;Maguire,K. & Pastore,A.L.(2009),刑事司法统计数据来源手册,检索自:Saad,L.(2008年)。Crime Statistics
::犯罪统计What crimes are people in the United States most likely to commit, and who is most likely to commit them? To understand criminal statistics, you must first understand how these statistics are collected.
::美国人民最可能犯什么罪,谁最可能犯什么罪?为了了解犯罪统计数字,你必须首先了解这些统计数字是如何收集的。Since 1930, the Federal Bureau of Investigation has been collecting and publishing an archive of crime statistics. Known as Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), these annual publications contain data from approximately 17,000 law enforcement agencies (FBI 2011). Although the UCR contains comprehensive data on police reports, it fails to take into account the fact that many crimes go unreported due to the victim’s unwillingness to report them, largely based on fear, shame, or distrust of the police. The quality of the data collected by the UCR also varies greatly. Because officers’ approaches to gathering victims’ accounts frequently differed, important details were not always asked for or reported (Cantor and Lynch 2000).
::1930年以来,联邦调查局一直在收集和出版犯罪统计档案,这些年度出版物被称为《统一犯罪报告》,包含来自大约17 000个执法机构的数据(2011年联邦调查局),虽然联邦调查局载有关于警察报告的全面数据,但它没有考虑到许多犯罪由于受害者不愿举报而未报告,这主要是因为害怕、羞耻或不信任警察。联邦调查局收集的数据的质量也有很大差异。由于警官收集受害者账户的方法往往不同,因此并不总是要求提供或报告重要细节(Cantor和Lynch,2000年)。To offset this publication, in 1973 the U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics began to publish a separate report known as the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS). The NCVS is a self-report study . A self-report study is a collection of data acquired using voluntary response methods, such as questionnaires or telephone interviews. Each year, survey data are gathered from approximately 135,000 people in the United States on the frequency and type of crime they experience in their daily lives (BJS 2011). The surveys are thorough, providing a wider scope of information than was previously available. This allows researchers to examine crime from more detailed perspectives and to analyze the data based on factors such as the relationship between victims and offenders, the consequences of the crimes, and substance abuse involved in the crimes. Demographics are also analyzed, such as age, race, gender, location, and income level (National Archive of Criminal Justice Data 2010). The NCVS reports a higher rate of crime than the UCR.
::为了抵消这一出版物,1973年,美国司法统计局开始出版一份单独的报告,称为国家犯罪受害情况调查(NCVS),这是一份自我报告研究,自报研究是利用自愿反应方法(如问卷调查或电话访谈)收集的数据,每年从美国约135 000人收集调查数据,了解他们在日常生活中经历的犯罪的频率和类型(BJS 2011),调查是全面的,提供了比以前更广泛的信息范围,使研究人员能够从更详细的角度审查犯罪情况,并根据受害者与罪犯之间的关系、犯罪后果和犯罪所涉药物滥用等因素分析数据,还对年龄、种族、性别、地点和收入水平等人口进行了分析(2010年国家刑事司法资料档案)。Though the NCVS is a critical source of statistical information, disadvantages exist. “Non-response,” or a victim’s failure to participate in the survey or a particular question, is among them. Inability to contact important demographics, such as those who don’t have access to phones or frequently relocate, also skews the data. For those who participate, memory issues can be problematic for the data sets. Some victims’ recollection of the crimes can be inaccurate or simply forgotten over time (Cantor and Lynch 2000).
::尽管国家民事登记和人口统计中心是统计资料的重要来源,但存在缺点。 " 无反应 " 或受害者未能参与调查或某个特定问题就属于其中。 无法接触重要人口群体,例如无法接听电话或经常迁移的人,也扭曲了数据。 对于参与的人来说,记忆问题可能对数据集造成问题。 一些受害者的犯罪回忆可能不准确,或可能随着时间的推移被遗忘(Cantor和Lynch 2000 ) 。While neither of these publications can take into account all of the crimes committed in the country, some general trends may be noted. Crime rates were on the rise after 1960, but following an all-time high in the 1980s and 1990s, rates of violent and non-violent crimes once again started to decline.
::虽然这两个出版物都未能考虑到在该国犯下的所有罪行,但可以注意到一些一般趋势,1960年后犯罪率呈上升趋势,但在1980年代和1990年代创历史新高之后,暴力和非暴力犯罪率再次开始下降。In 2009, approximately 4.3 million violent crimes occurred in the United States, the majority being assault and robbery. An estimated 15.6 million nonviolent crimes took place, the most common being larceny. Less than half of all violent and nonviolent crimes were reported to the police (BJS 2010).
::2009年,美国发生了约430万起暴力犯罪,其中大多数是袭击和抢劫,估计发生了1 560万起非暴力犯罪,最常见的是盗窃,向警方报告了不到一半的暴力和非暴力犯罪(BJS,2010年)。In general, demographic patterns tend to correlate with crime: factors such as sex and socioeconomic status may relate to a person’s chances of being a crime victim or a perpetrator. Women are much more likely than men to be victimized by someone they know, such as a family member or friend, and one-fourth of all nonfatal attacks on women are carried out by a romantic partner (BJS 2011b).
::一般来说,人口模式往往与犯罪相关:性和社会经济地位等因素可能与一个人成为犯罪受害者或犯罪者的机会有关。 女性比男性更有可能成为自己认识的人(如家庭成员或朋友)的受害人,而所有非致命性袭击中的四分之一是由浪漫伴侣实施的(BJS 2011b)。
Conventional Crime
::常规犯罪
Rates of violent crime victimization are higher in urban areas than in rural areas.
::城市地区暴力犯罪受害率高于农村地区。© Thinkstock
::智商Conventional encompasses the violent and property offenses listed previously that worry average citizens more than any other type of crime. As indicated, more than 20 million violent and property victimizations occurred in the United States in 2009. These offenses included some 15,240 murders; 126,000 rapes and sexual assaults; 534,000 robberies; and 823,000 aggravated assaults. Even more property crime occurs: 3.1 million burglaries, 11.8 million larcenies, and 736,000 motor vehicle thefts (Pastore & Maguire, 2010). Pastore, A. L., & Maguire, K. (2010). Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics . Retrieved from The NCVS estimates that the crimes it measures cost their victims almost $20 billion each year in property losses, medical expenses, and time lost from work.
::如上文所述,2009年美国发生了2 000多万起暴力和财产伤害事件,其中包括15 240起谋杀、126 000起强奸和性攻击、534 000起抢劫和823 000起严重攻击,更多的是财产犯罪:310万起盗窃案、1 180万起盗窃案和736 000起机动车辆盗窃案(Pastore & Maguire,2010年)。Pastore, A.L., & Maguire, K.(2010年)。lists the number of violent and property crimes as reported by the UCR (see earlier) and estimated by the NCVS. Note that these two crime sources do not measure exactly the same crimes. For example, the NCVS excludes commercial crimes such as shoplifting, while the UCR includes them. The NCVS includes simple assaults (where someone receives only a minor injury), while the UCR excludes them. These differences notwithstanding, we can still see that the NCVS estimates about twice as many crimes as the UCR reports to us.
::请注意,这两个犯罪来源并不完全测量同样的犯罪。例如,全国受害者委员会排除了商店行窃等商业犯罪,而美国受害者委员会则包括了这些犯罪。全国受害者委员会包括简单的攻击(当某人只受到轻微伤害时),而统一受害者委员会则排除了这些犯罪。尽管存在这些差异,我们仍可以看到,全国受害者委员会估计的犯罪数量是美国受害者委员会向我们报告的犯罪的两倍左右。
Table 7.1 Number of Crimes: Uniform Crime Reports and National Crime Victimization Survey, 2009
::表7.1 2009年犯罪数量:统一犯罪报告和全国犯罪受害情况调查Type of crime UCR NCVS Violent crime 1,318,398 4,343,450 Property crime 9,320,971 15,713,720 Total 10,639,369 20,057,170 Source: Data from Pastore, A. L., & Maguire, K. (2010). Sourcebook of criminal justice statistics. Retrieved from .
Generally, African Americans and other people of color are more likely than whites to be victims of conventional crime, poor people more likely than wealthy people, men more likely than women (excluding rape and sexual assault), and urban residents more likely than rural residents. To illustrate these differences, presents some relevant comparisons for violent crime victimization.
::一般来说,非裔美国人和其他有色人种比白人更有可能成为常规犯罪的受害者,穷人比富人更有可能受害,男子比妇女更有可能受害(不包括强奸和性攻击),城市居民比农村居民更有可能受害。
Figure 7.2 Correlates of Violent Crime Victimization, 2008
::图7.2 2008年暴力犯罪受害人的对比情况
Note: Income data are for 2007; rural and urban data are for 2005.
::注:收入数据为2007年;农村和城市数据为2005年。Source: Data from Maston, C. T., & Klaus, P. (2010). Criminal victimization in the United States, 2007—Statistical tables . Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice; Rand, M. R. (2009). Criminal victimization, 2008 . Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice
::资料来源:Maston, C.T. & Klaus, P. (2010年),《美国犯罪受害情况》,2007年-统计表格,华盛顿特区:美国司法部司法统计局;Rand, M.R.(2009年),《犯罪受害情况》,2008年,华盛顿特区:美国司法部司法统计局。
As this figure illustrates, violent crime is more common in urban areas than in rural areas. It varies geographically in at least one other respect, and that is among the regions of the United States. In general, violent crime is more common in the South and West than in the Midwest or Northeast. depicts this variation for homicide rates. Louisiana has the highest homicide rate, 14.24 homicides per 100,000 residents, and New Hampshire has the lowest rate, 1.1 per 100,000 residents. Although homicide is thankfully a rare occurrence, it is much more common in Louisiana than in New Hampshire, and it is generally more common in the South and West than in other regions. Scholars attribute the South’s high rate of homicide and other violent crime to several factors, among them a subculture of violence, its history of slavery and racial violence, and its high levels of poverty (Lee, Bankston, Hayes, & Thomas, 2007).Lee, M. R., Bankston, W. B., Hayes, T. C., & Thomas, S. A. (2007). Revisiting the Southern subculture of violence. The Sociological Quarterly, 48, 253–275.
::如此图所示,暴力犯罪在城市地区比农村地区更为常见,在地理上至少从另一个方面不同,这在美国地区中更为常见。一般而言,暴力犯罪在南部和西部比中西部或东北部更为常见。描述杀人率的这种差异。路易斯安那州杀人率最高,每10万居民有14.24起凶杀案,新罕布什尔每10万居民有1.1起凶杀案。虽然令人欣慰的是,杀人事件很少发生,但在路易斯安那州比新罕布什尔州更常见,在南部和西部地区也普遍比其他地区更为常见。学者认为,南部杀人和其他暴力犯罪率高,这有几个因素,其中包括暴力亚文化、奴役和种族暴力历史,以及高度贫困(Lee、Bankston、W.B.、Hayes、T.C.和Thomas,2007年)。社会学季刊,第48页,第25页。
Figure 7.3 U.S. Homicide Rates, 2008
::图7.3 2008年美国杀人犯罪率
Source: Data from U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2010. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from .
::资料来源:美国人口普查局数据(2010年),《美国统计摘要:2010年》,华盛顿特区:美国政府印刷局。
When it comes to crime, we fear strangers much more than people we know, but NCVS data suggest our fear is somewhat misplaced (Truman & Rand, 2010). Truman, J. L., & Rand, M. R. (2010). Criminal victimization, 2009 . Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice. In cases of assault, rape, or robbery, the NCVS asks respondents whether they knew the offender. Strangers commit only about 42% of these offenses, meaning that 58% of the offenses, or well over half, are committed by someone the victim knows. There is also a gender difference in this area: 68% of women victims are attacked by someone they know (usually a man), compared to only 45% of male victims. Women have more to fear from men they know than from men they do not know.Another important fact about conventional crime is that most of it is intraracial, meaning that the offender and victim are usually of the same race. For example, 84% of all single offender–single victim homicides in 2009 involved persons who were either both white or both African American (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2010).Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2010). Crime in the United States, 2009. Washington, DC: Author.
::常规犯罪的另一个重要事实是,大部分是种族内部犯罪,这意味着罪犯和受害者通常是同一种族的。 比如,2009年所有单一罪犯中的84% — — 单一受害者凶杀案涉及白人或非裔美国人(联邦调查局,2010年)。 联邦调查局(2010年),《美国犯罪》,2009年,华盛顿特区:作者。Who is most likely to commit conventional crime? As noted earlier, males are more likely than females to commit it (see ) because of gender differences in socialization. Opportunity may also matter, as during adolescence boys have more freedom than girls to be outside the home and to get into trouble.
::如前所述,由于社会化方面的性别差异,男性比女性更可能实施常规犯罪(见),机会也很重要,因为在青少年时期,男孩比女孩有更多的自由走出家门和陷入麻烦。
Figure 7.4 Gender and Arrest, 2008
::图7.4 性别与逮捕,2008年
Source: Data from Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2010). Crime in the United States, 2009. Washington, DC: Author.
::资料来源:联邦调查局数据(2010年),《美国的犯罪》,2009年,华盛顿特区:作者。
Despite much controversy over what racial differences in arrest mean, African Americans have higher rates of arrest than whites for conventional crime. Criminologists generally agree that these rates indicate higher rates of offending (Walker, Spohn, & DeLone, 2007).Walker, S., Spohn, C., & DeLone, M. (2007). The color of justice: Race, ethnicity, and crime in America. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. Although African Americans are about 13% of the U.S. population, they accounted for about 39% of all arrests for violent crime in 2009 and 30% of all arrests for property crime (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2010).Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2010). Crime in the United States, 2009. Washington, DC: Author. Much of these higher crime rates stem from the fact that African Americans are much poorer than whites on average and much more likely to live in the large cities with high crime rates and in the neighborhoods in these cities with the highest crime rates (McNulty & Bellair, 2003).McNulty, T. L., & Bellair, P. E. (2003). Explaining racial and ethnic differences in serious adolescent violent behavior. Criminology, 41, 709–748. If whites lived under the same conditions, their crime rates would be much higher as well.
::尽管在逮捕中种族差异的含义上存在争议,但非裔美国人因常规犯罪被逮捕的比例比白人高得多。 犯罪学家普遍认为,这些犯罪率表明犯罪率较高(Walker, Spohn, & DeLone, 2007, 2007, Walker, S., Spohn, C., & DeLone, M.(2007)。 司法的颜色:美国种族、族裔和犯罪。 Belmont, CA:Wadsworth。 虽然非洲裔美国人占美国人口的13%左右,但在2009年所有暴力犯罪逮捕中约占39 % , 在所有财产犯罪逮捕中约占30 % (联邦调查局, 2010 ) 。联邦调查局(2010 ) 。 美国犯罪率更高, 2009, Washington, Spohn, C., C., & DeL., C., C., C., C., D., D. (2007 ) 。 大部分这类犯罪率都源自一个事实:非裔美国人平均比白人贫穷得多,更可能生活在犯罪率高的大城市和犯罪率最高的社区(McNulty & Bella, T. L. L. 和Bella Rimeximissal view. E.Social class also makes a difference in conventional crime rates. Most people arrested for conventional crime have low education and low incomes. Such class differences in arrest can be explained by several of the explanations of deviance already discussed, including strain theory. Note, however, that wealthier people commit most white-collar crimes. If the question is whether social class affects crime rates, the answer depends on what kind of crime we have in mind.
::社会阶级在常规犯罪率上也有不同。大多数因常规犯罪而被捕的人受教育程度低,收入低。逮捕中的这种阶级差异可以用已经讨论过的关于异常行为的一些解释来解释,包括压力理论。但请注意,富裕的人犯下了大多数白领犯罪。如果问题是社会阶级是否影响犯罪率,答案取决于我们想犯什么罪。One final factor affecting conventional crime rates is age. The evidence is very clear that conventional crime is disproportionately committed by people 30 and under. For example, people in the 10–24 age group are about 22% of the U.S. population but account for about 45% of all arrests (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2010). Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2010). Crime in the United States, 2009 . Washington, DC: Author. During adolescence and young adulthood, peer influences are especially strong and “stakes in conventional activities,” to use some sociological jargon, are weak. Once we start working full time and get married, our stakes in society become stronger and our sense of responsibility grows. We soon realize that breaking the law might prove more costly than when we were 15.
::影响常规犯罪率的最后一个因素是年龄。证据非常明确,30岁和30岁以下的人犯下了超比例的常规犯罪。 比如,10-24岁年龄组的人大约占美国人口的22%,但占所有逮捕的45%左右(联邦调查局,2010年)。 联邦调查局(2010年)。 美国的犯罪,2009年。华盛顿:作者。在青春期和年轻成年期间,同龄人的影响特别强烈,使用一些社会学术语的“常规活动”也非常薄弱。 一旦我们开始全时工作并结婚,我们在社会中的利害关系就会变得更大,我们的责任感也会增加。 我们很快认识到,违法的代价可能比我们15岁时要高。
White-Collar Crime
::白肤色犯罪is crime committed as part of one’s occupation. It ranges from fraudulent repairs by auto repair shops to corruption in the high-finance industry to unsafe products and workplaces in some of our largest corporations. It also includes employee theft of objects and cash. Have you ever taken something without permission from a place where you worked? Whether or not you have, many people steal from their employees, and the National Retail Federation estimates that employee theft involves some $20 billion annually (National Retail Federation, 2007). National Retail Federation. (2007, June 11). Retail losses hit $41.6 billion last year, according to National Retail Security Survey [Press release]. Retrieved from
::从汽车修理厂的欺诈性修理到高金融行业的腐败,到我们一些最大公司的不安全产品和工作场所,还包括雇员盗窃物品和现金。你是否未经允许从工作地偷过东西?不管你是否有,许多人从雇员那里偷东西,全国零售联合会估计,雇员盗窃每年涉及200亿美元左右(全国零售联合会,2007年,2007年,6月11日)。 根据国家零售安全调查,去年零售损失达416亿美元。
White-collar crime also includes health-care fraud, which is estimated to cost some $100 billion a year as, for example, physicians and other health-care providers bill Medicaid for exams and tests that were never done or were unnecessary (Rosoff, Pontell, & Tillman, 2010). Rosoff, S. M., Pontell, H. N., & Tillman, R. (2010). Profit without honor: White collar crime and the looting of America (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. And it also involves tax evasion: the IRS estimates that tax evasion costs the government some $300 billion annually, a figure many times greater than the cost of all robberies and burglaries (Montgomery, 2007). Montgomery, L. (2007, April 16). Unpaid taxes tough to recover. The Washington Post , p. A1.
::白领犯罪还包括保健欺诈,估计每年花费约1 000亿美元,例如,医生和其他保健提供者每年花费约1 000亿美元,例如,医生和其他保健提供者为从未做过或不必要的考试和测验(Rosoff, Pontell, & Tillman,2010年)。 Rosoff, S. M., Pontell, H. N., & Tillman, R. (2010年)。 无荣誉的利润:白领犯罪和对美洲的抢劫(第5版)。上萨德尔河,NJ: Prentice Hall。 还包括逃税:IRS估计,逃税每年给政府花费约3 000亿美元,这一数字比所有抢劫和盗窃案的费用高出许多倍(Montgomery,2007年;Montgomery, L.(2007年,4月16日)。Some of the worst crime is committed by our major corporations ( corporate crime ). As just one example, price fixing in the corporate world costs the U.S. public about $60 billion a year (Simon, 2006). Simon, D. R. (2006). Elite deviance . Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Even worse, an estimated 50,000 workers die each year from workplace-related illnesses and injuries that could have been prevented if companies had obeyed regulatory laws and followed known practices for safe workplaces (AFL-CIO, 2007). AFL-CIO. (2007). Death on the job: The toll of neglect . Washington, DC: AFL-CIO. A tragic example of this problem occurred in April 2010, when an explosion in a mining cave in West Virginia killed 29 miners. It was widely thought that a buildup of deadly gases had caused the explosion, and the company that owned the mine had been cited many times during the prior year for safety violations related to proper gas ventilation (Urbina, 2010). Urbina, I. (2010, April 10). No survivors found after West Virginia mine disaster. The New York Times, p. A1.
::更糟糕的是,每年估计有50,000名工人死于与工作场所有关的疾病和伤害,而这些疾病和伤害本可以预防,如果公司遵守了监管法律并遵循了安全工作场所的已知做法(AFL-CIO,2007年),AFL-CIO (2007年),《公司世界的定价,每年花费美国公众约600亿美元(Simon,2006年),Simon,D.R.(2006年),D.R.(2006年)。Simon,D.R.(2006年),Elite deviance,波士顿,MA:Allin & Bacon。更糟糕的是,每年估计有50,000名工人死于与工作场所有关的疾病和伤害,而这些疾病如果公司遵守了监管法律并遵循了安全工作场所的已知做法(AFL-CIO,2007年),AFL-CIO (2007年),《工作中的死亡:忽视的代价》,华盛顿,DC:AFL-CIO,2010年4月10年4月,在西弗吉吉尼亚州矿山灾难后没有幸存者。《纽约时报》,第1页,A1页。Corporations also make deadly products. In the 1930s the asbestos industry first realized their product was dangerous but hid the evidence of its danger, which was not discovered until 40 years later. In the meantime thousands of asbestos workers came down with deadly asbestos-related disease, and the public was exposed to asbestos that was routinely put into buildings until its danger came to light. It is estimated that more than 200,000 people will eventually die from asbestos (Lilienfeld, 1991). Lilienfeld, D. E. (1991). The silence: The asbestos industry and early occupational cancer research—a case study. American Journal of Public Health, 81, 791–800.
::1930年代,石棉工业首次发现其产品是危险的,但隐藏了危险的证据,40年后才发现。 与此同时,数千名石棉工人患上了致命的石棉相关疾病,公众接触石棉,石棉通常被放入建筑物,直到发现其危险为止。 据估计,200,000多人最终将死于石棉(Lilienfeld,1991年)。Lilienfeld,D.E.(1991年)。沉默:石棉工业和早期职业癌症研究——案例研究。《美国公共卫生杂志》,81,791-800。Is white-collar crime worse than conventional crime? The evidence seems to say yes. A recent estimate put the number of deaths from white-collar crime annually at about 110,000, compared to “only” 16,000 to 17,000 from homicide. The financial cost of white-collar crime to the public was also estimated at about $565 billion annually, compared to about $18 billion from conventional crime (Barkan, 2012). Barkan, S. E. (2012). Criminology: A sociological understanding (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Although we worry about conventional crime much more than white-collar crime, the latter harms the public more in terms of death and financial costs.
::白领犯罪是否比常规犯罪更糟糕?证据似乎认为是的。最新估计显示白领犯罪每年死亡人数约为110 000人,而“只有”16 000至17 000人死于凶杀案。 白领犯罪对公众造成的经济损失每年约为5 650亿美元,而常规犯罪造成的经济损失约为180亿美元(Barkan,2012年)。Barkan,S.E.(2012年)。犯罪学:社会学理解(第5版)。上萨德尔河,NJ:Prentice Hall。尽管我们对传统犯罪比白领犯罪更担心,但后者对公众造成的死亡和财政成本伤害更大。
Victimless Crime
::无受害人犯罪is illegal behavior in which people willingly engage and in which there are no unwilling victims. The most common examples are drug use, prostitution, pornography, and gambling. Many observers say these crimes are not really victimless, even if people do engage in them voluntarily. For example, many drug users hurt themselves and members of their family from their addiction and the physical effects of taking drugs. Prostitutes put themselves at risk for sexually transmitted disease and abuse by pimps and customers. Illegal gamblers can lose huge sums of money. Although none of these crimes is truly victimless, the fact that the people involved in them are not unwilling victims makes victimless crime different from conventional crime.
::最常见的例子有吸毒、卖淫、色情和赌博等。许多观察家说,即使人们自愿参与,这些犯罪并非真正没有受害者。例如,许多吸毒者伤害自己和家庭成员的吸毒成瘾和服用毒品的生理影响。卖淫者使自己面临性传染疾病和皮条客及顾客虐待的风险。非法赌博者可能损失巨额金钱。虽然这些犯罪没有一个真正没有受害者,但参与这些犯罪的人并不不愿意受害者的事实使得受害者的罪行不同于常规犯罪。Victimless crime raises controversial philosophical and sociological questions. The philosophical question is this: should people be allowed to engage in behavior that hurts themselves (Meier & Geis, 2007)? Meier, R. F., & Geis, G. (2007). Criminal justice and moral issues . New York, NY: Oxford University Press. For example, our society lets adults smoke cigarettes, even though tobacco use kills several hundred thousand people every year. We also let adults gamble legally in state lotteries, at casinos and racetracks, and in other ways. We obviously let people of all ages eat “fat food” such as hamburgers, candy bars, and ice cream. Few people would say we should prohibit these potentially harmful behaviors. Why, then, prohibit the behaviors we call victimless crime? Some scholars say that any attempt to decide which behaviors are so unsafe or immoral that they should be banned is bound to be arbitrary, and they call for these bans to be lifted. Others say that the state does indeed have a legitimate duty to ban behavior the public considers unsafe or immoral and that the present laws reflect public opinion on which behaviors should be banned.
::无受害者犯罪引发了有争议的哲学和社会问题。哲学问题是:是否应该允许人们从事伤害自己的行为(Meier & Geis, 2007)? Meier, R. F., & Geis, G. (2007),刑事司法和道德问题。纽约,纽约:牛津大学出版社。例如,我们的社会允许成年人吸烟,尽管吸烟每年杀死几十万人。我们让成年人在州彩票、赌场和赛道上合法赌博,并以其他方式赌博。我们显然让所有年龄的人吃“脂肪食品”如汉堡、糖果棒和冰淇淋。很少有人会说我们应该禁止这些潜在的有害行为。为什么,那么,禁止我们称之为无受害者犯罪的行为?一些学者说,任何试图决定哪些行为如此不安全或不道德,应当禁止的行为都是任意的,他们要求取消这些禁令。其他人说,国家确实有合法义务禁止公众的行为,认为不安全或不道德,现行法律反映了应当禁止哪些行为的公众舆论。The sociological question is just as difficult to resolve: do laws against victimless crimes do more harm than good (Meier & Geis, 2007)? Meier, R. F., & Geis, G. (2007). Criminal justice and moral issues . New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Some scholars say these laws in fact do much more harm than good, and they call for the laws to be abolished or at least reconsidered for several reasons: the laws are ineffective even though they cost billions of dollars to enforce, and they lead to police and political corruption and greater profits for organized crime. Laws against drugs further lead to extra violence, as youth gangs and other groups fight each other to corner the market for the distribution of drugs in various neighborhoods. The opponents of victimless crime laws commonly cite the example of Prohibition during the 1920s, where the banning of alcohol led to all of these problems, which in turn forced an end to Prohibition by the early 1930s. If victimless crimes were made legal, opponents add, the government could tax the behaviors now banned and collect billions of additional tax dollars.
::社会问题同样难以解决:打击无受害者犯罪的法律是否弊大于利(Meier & Geis, 2007年);Meier, R. F., & Geis, G. (2007年);刑事司法和道德问题。纽约:牛津大学出版社。一些学者说,这些法律实际上弊大于利,他们呼吁废除这些法律,或至少出于若干原因重新考虑这些法律:尽管这些法律需要花费数十亿美元来执行,但却是无效的,它们导致警察和政治腐败,有组织犯罪的利润增加。禁毒法律还导致更多的暴力,因为青年帮派和其他团体相互争斗,在各种社区中打转毒品市场。 1920年代,无受害者犯罪法的反对者通常引用禁止法的例子,禁止酗酒导致所有这些问题,反过来又迫使在1930年代初停止禁止。如果无受害者犯罪成为合法罪行,反对者补充说,政府可以对现在禁止的行为征税,并征收数十亿美元的额外税。
Laws against illegal drug use and other victimless crimes raise several philosophical and sociological questions, including whether the laws do more harm than good.
::打击非法药物使用和其他无受害人犯罪的法律引起了若干哲学和社会学问题,包括法律是否弊大于利。© Thinkstock
::智商
Those in favor of laws against victimless crimes cite the danger these behaviors pose for the people engaging in them and for the larger society. If we made drugs legal, they say, even more people would use them, and even more death and illness would occur. Removing the bans against behaviors such as drug use and prostitution, these proponents add, would imply that these behaviors are acceptable in a civil society.
::支持打击无受害者犯罪的法律的人指出这些行为对参与这些行为的人和广大社会构成的危险。 他们说,如果我们将毒品合法化,就会有更多的人使用毒品,甚至会发生更多的死亡和疾病。 这些支持者补充说,取消对吸毒和卖淫等行为的禁令意味着这些行为在民间社会是可以接受的。The debate over victimless crimes and victimless crime laws will not end soon, as both sides have several good points to make. One thing that is clear is that our current law enforcement approach is not working. More than 1 million people are arrested annually for drug use and trafficking and other victimless crimes, but there is little evidence that using the law in this manner has lowered people’s willingness to take part in victimless crime behavior (Meier & Geis, 2007). Meier, R. F., & Geis, G. (2007). Criminal justice and moral issues . New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Perhaps it is not too rash to say that a serious national debate needs to begin on the propriety of the laws against victimless crimes to determine what course of action makes the most sense for American society.
::关于无受害人犯罪和无受害人犯罪法的辩论不会很快结束,因为双方都有几个好点要指出。 有一点是明确的:我们目前的执法方法行不通。 每年有100多万人因吸毒和贩运以及其他无受害人犯罪而被捕,但几乎没有证据表明,以这种方式使用法律降低了人们参与无受害人犯罪行为的意愿(Meier & Geis,2007年)。Meier, R.F, & Geis, G.(2007年)。刑事司法和道德问题。纽约:牛津大学出版社。也许说一场严肃的全国性辩论需要从打击无受害人犯罪的法律的适当性开始,以决定美国社会最有意义的行动方针。Learning From Other Societies
::从其他社会学会学习Crime and Punishment in Denmark and the Netherlands
::丹麦和荷兰境内的犯罪和处罚问题As the text notes, since the 1970s the United States has used a get-tough approach to fight crime; a key dimension of this approach is mandatory sentencing and long prison terms and, as a result, a huge increase in the number of people in prison and jail. Many scholars say this approach has not reduced crime to a great degree and has cost hundreds of billions of dollars.
::案文指出,自1970年代以来,美国在打击犯罪方面采取了 " 捉摸不定 " 的办法;这种办法的一个关键方面是强制判刑和长期监禁,结果导致监狱和监狱囚犯人数大量增加,许多学者说,这种办法没有在很大程度上减少犯罪,花费了数千亿美元。The experience of Denmark and the Netherlands suggests a different way of treating criminals and dealing with crime. Those nations, like most others in Western Europe, think prison makes most offenders worse and should be used only as a last resort for the most violent and most incorrigible offenders. They also recognize that incarceration is very expensive and much more costly than other ways of dealing with offenders. These concerns have led Denmark, the Netherlands, and other Western European nations to favor alternatives to imprisonment for the bulk of their offenders. These alternatives include the widespread use of probation, community service, and other kinds of community-based corrections. Studies indicate that these alternatives may be as effective as incarceration in reducing recidivism (repeat offending) and cost much less than incarceration. If so, an important lesson from Denmark, the Netherlands, and other nations in Western Europe is that it is possible to keep society safe from crime without using the costly get-tough approach that has been the hallmark of the U.S. criminal justice system since the 1970s. (Bijleveld & Smit, 2005; Dammer & Fairchild, 2006) Bijleveld, C. C. J. H., & Smit, P. R. (2005). Crime and punishment in the Netherlands, 1980–1999. Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, 33, 161–211; Dammer, H. R., & Fairchild, E. (2006). Comparative criminal justice systems. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
::丹麦和荷兰的经验表明了对待罪犯和处理犯罪的不同方式。 这些国家,像西欧的大多数国家一样,认为监狱使罪犯更加糟糕,只能作为最暴力和最残忍的罪犯的最后手段。 他们也承认监禁比其他处理罪犯的方式代价昂贵,而且费用要高得多。 这些关注导致丹麦、荷兰和其他西欧国家赞成对大部分罪犯采用替代监禁的替代方法。 这些替代方法包括广泛使用缓刑、社区服务和其他类型的社区教养。 研究表明,这些替代方法在减少累犯(重犯)方面可能与监禁一样有效,而且费用也比监禁要低得多。 如果是这样,丹麦、荷兰和西欧其他国家的一个重要教训是,在不使用自1970年代以来美国刑事司法系统的标志----代价高昂的得手方法的情况下,可以使社会免遭犯罪。 (Bijleveld & Smit, 2005;Dammer & Fairchild, 2006-Bijled, C. H. H. H., & Slifreal, A. R. Review. A. R. Cam and Crimeal and Crime, R. R. Review. R. C.
The United States Criminal Justice System
::美国刑事司法系统Once a crime has been committed, and filed it falls into the jurisdiction of the criminal justice system. A criminal justice system is an organization that exists to enforce a legal code. There are three important branches of the United States criminal justice system: the police, the courts, and the corrections system.
::犯罪一经发生,即归刑事司法系统管辖,刑事司法系统是执行法律的组织,美国刑事司法系统有三个重要分支:警察、法院和惩戒系统。Police
::警察警察警察警察Police are a civil force in charge of enforcing laws and public order at a federal, state, or community level. No unified national police force exists in the United States, although there are federal law enforcement officers. Federal officers operate under specific government agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigations (FBI); the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives (ATF); and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Federal officers can only deal with matters that are explicitly within the power of the federal government, and their field of expertise is usually narrow. A county police officer may spend time responding to emergency calls, working at the local jail, or patrolling areas as needed, whereas a federal officer would be more likely to investigate suspects in firearms trafficking or provide security for government officials.
::联邦警察是负责联邦、州或社区一级执法和公共秩序的民事部队,尽管有联邦执法官员,但美国没有统一的国家警察部队;联邦警察在联邦调查局、酒精、烟草、火器和爆炸物局(ATF)和国土安全部(DHS)等特定政府机构下运作;联邦警察只能处理联邦政府权力范围内的事务,其专长领域通常狭窄;州警察可以花时间响应紧急呼声,在当地监狱工作,或视需要巡逻地区,而联邦警察则更有可能调查贩运火器的嫌疑人或为政府官员提供安全。State police have the authority to enforce statewide laws, including regulating traffic on highways. Local or county police, on the other hand, have a limited jurisdiction with authority only in the town or county in which they serve.
::另一方面,地方或县警察只在其服务的城镇或县拥有有限的管辖权。
Courts
::法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院法院Once a crime has been committed and a violator is identified by the police, the case goes to the court. A court is a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law. Similar to the police, the U.S. judicial system is divided into federal courts and state courts. As the name implies, federal courts (including the U.S. Supreme Court) deal with federal matters, including trade disputes, military justice, and government lawsuits. Judges who preside over federal courts are selected by the president with the consent of Congress.
::一旦犯罪并被警方确定为违法者,案件即提交法院,法院是有权依法作出决定的系统,与警察一样,美国司法系统分为联邦法院和州法院,如名称所示,联邦法院(包括美国最高法院)处理联邦事务,包括贸易争端、军事司法和政府诉讼;主持联邦法院的法官由总统在国会同意下选出。State courts vary in their structure, but generally include three levels: trial courts, appellate courts, and state supreme courts. Unlike the large courtroom trials in TV shows, most noncriminal cases are decided by a judge without a jury present. Traffic court and small claims court are both types of trial courts that handle specific civil matters.
::国家法院的结构各有不同,但一般包括三级:初审法院、上诉法院和州最高法院,与电视剧中的大型审判室审判不同,大多数非刑事案件由法官在没有陪审团在场的情况下裁决,交通法院和小额索赔法院都是处理具体民事事项的两类审判法院。Criminal cases are heard by trial courts that handle general jurisdictions. Usually, a judge and jury are both present. It is the jury’s responsibility to determine guilt, and the judge’s responsibility to determine the penalty, though in some states, the jury may also decide the penalty. Unless a defendant is found “not guilty,” any member of the prosecution or defense can appeal the case to a higher court. In some states, the case then goes to a special appellate court; in others, it goes to the highest state court, often known as the state supreme court.
::刑事案件由处理一般司法管辖权的审理法院审理,通常,法官和陪审团同时出庭。 裁定有罪是陪审团的责任,而确定刑罚也是法官的责任,尽管在某些州,陪审团也可以决定刑罚。 除非被告被裁定“无罪 ” , 任何公诉人或被告都可以向更高一级法院上诉。 在一些州,案件随后提交特别上诉法院;在另一些州,案件则提交州最高法院,通常称为州最高法院。
Inside Courtroom at EOIR Immigration Court El Paso, Texas IMG_3104 | by Professor Kit Johnson
::德克萨斯州El Paso EOIR 移民法院内部审判室,IMG_3104,Kit Johnson教授
Corrections
::惩教When people are found guilty of commiting a crime, they are punished. Sanctions used to punish criminals are called corrections. The corrections system , more commonly known as the prison system, is tasked with supervising individuals who have been arrested, convicted, and sentenced for a criminal offense. At the end of 2010, approximately seven million Americans were behind bars (BJS 2011d). There are four major components to these sanctions. Imprisonment, parole, probation, and community service. These sanctions serve four functions:
::当人们被判定犯有罪行时,将受到惩处;惩罚罪犯的制裁被称为惩戒;惩戒系统(通常称为监狱系统)的任务是监督被逮捕、定罪和因刑事罪被判刑的个人;2010年底,约有700万美国人被监禁(BJS 2011d)。这些制裁有四个主要组成部分:监禁、假释、缓刑和社区服务。这些制裁有四个职能:1. retribution
::1. 报复2. deterrence
::2. 威慑3. rehabilitation
::3. 康复4. social protection
::4. 社会保护The American Prison System
::美国监狱系统The United States incarceration rate has grown considerably in the last hundred years. In 2008, more than 1 in 100 U.S. adults were in jail or prison, the highest benchmark in our nation’s history. And while Americans account for 5 percent of the global population, we have 25 percent of the world’s inmates, the largest number of prisoners in the world (Liptak 2008b). When compared to other industrialized countries, the U,S. has a significant high rate of violent crime. In the United States if a person is convicted of nonviolent crime, they are most likely to be sentenced to prison than those convicted in other nations.
::美国的监禁率在过去一百年中大幅上升。 2008年,美国100个成年人中有1个以上在监狱或监狱服刑,这是我国历史上的最高基准。 虽然美国人占全球人口的5%,但我们有25%的世界囚犯,是世界上囚犯人数最多的(Liptak 2008b ) 。 与其他工业化国家相比,美国有相当高的暴力犯罪率。 在美国,如果一个人被判定犯有非暴力犯罪,他们最有可能被判处与其他国家相比的监禁。Parole refers to a temporary release from prison or jail that requires supervision and the consent of officials. Parole is different from probation, which is supervised time used as an alternative to prison. Probation and parole can both follow a period of incarceration in prison, especially if the prison sentence is shortened.
::假释是指从监狱或监狱临时释放,需要监管和官员同意;假释不同于缓刑,因为假释是作为监狱替代手段的监督时间;缓刑和假释都可在监狱监禁期之后进行,特别是如果刑期缩短。
Prison is different from jail. A jail provides temporary confinement, usually while an individual awaits trial or parole. Prisons are facilities built for individuals serving sentences of more than a year. Whereas jails are small and local, prisons are large and run by either the state or the federal government.
::监狱与监狱不同,监狱提供临时监禁,通常是在个人等待审判或假释期间;监狱是为服刑一年以上者建造的设施;监狱虽然规模小,但地方性,监狱规模大,由州或联邦政府管理。
For information on identity theft, please refer to the following article
::关于身份盗窃的信息,请参阅以下条款:
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Describe how gender and race affect public opinion about crime.
