Section outline

  • General

    Collapse all Expand all

  • 群体间关系模式

    Objectives
    ::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标

    Analyze the difference between prejudice and discrimination.
    ::分析偏见和歧视之间的区别。

    Describe the sources of discrimination and prejudice.
    ::说明歧视和偏见的根源。

    Explain the patterns of minority group treatment.
    ::解释少数群体待遇的模式。


    Universal Generalizations
    ::普遍化

    Discrimination and prejudice are common features of the minority- group experience.
    ::歧视和偏见是少数群体经历的共同特点。

    Discrimination can be either on an individual level or on a societal level.
    ::歧视可以是个人层面的歧视,也可以是社会层面的歧视。

    Many countries have had systems of legal discrimination.
    ::许多国家都有法律歧视制度。

    Institutionalized discrimination is more resistant to change.
    ::体制化的歧视更难以改变。

    Stereotyping can have profound effects for society.
    ::陈规定型观念对社会具有深远影响。

    Racism has been used throughout history to justify many atrocities such as slavery and genocide.
    ::种族主义在历史上一直被用来为奴隶制和种族灭绝等许多暴行辩护。

    In some countries control over groups is maintained through force.
    ::在一些国家,通过武力维持对团体的控制。

    In most societies, assimilation occurs voluntary.
    ::在大多数社会中,同化是自愿的。

    History provides many examples of segregation.
    ::历史提供了许多隔离的例子。


    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    What do you think inequality feels like?
    ::你觉得不平等是什么感觉?

    How do discrimination and prejudice differ?
    ::歧视和偏见如何不同?

    What is stereotyping?
    ::什么是陈规定型观念?

    Explain the self-fulfilling prophecy.
    ::解释一下自我实现的预言

    Why is it beneficial for countries to ensure protection of its minorities?
    ::为什么各国确保保护其少数群体对它有利?

    Prejudice and Racism
    ::偏见和种族主义

    Prejudice refers to beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and attitudes that someone holds about a group. A prejudice is not based on experience; instead, it is a prejudgment, originating outside of actual experience. Racism is a type of prejudice that is used to justify the belief that one racial category is somehow superior or inferior to others. The Ku Klux Klan is an example of a racist organization; its members’ belief in white supremacy has encouraged over a century of hate crime and hate speech.
    ::偏见是指某人对某一群体持有的信仰、思想、感情和态度。 偏见不是基于经验;相反,它是一种预断,起源于实际经验之外。 种族主义是一种偏见,用来证明一种种族类别比其他种族类别高或低的信念是正当的。 三K党是一个种族主义组织的例子;其成员对白人优越性的信念鼓励了长达一个世纪的仇恨犯罪和仇恨言论。

    Prejudice and discrimination are often confused, but the basic difference between them is this: prejudice is the attitude, while discrimination is the behavior. More specifically, racial and ethnic   refers to a set of negative attitudes, beliefs, and judgments about whole categories of people, and about individual members of those categories, because of their perceived race and/or ethnicity. A closely related concept is  , or the belief that certain racial or ethnic groups are inferior to one’s own. Prejudice and racism are often based on racial and ethnic  , or simplified, mistaken generalizations about people because of their race and/or ethnicity. While cultural and other differences do exist among the various American racial and ethnic groups, many of the views we have of such groups are unfounded and hence are stereotypes. An example of the stereotypes that white people have of other groups appears in  , in which white respondents in the General Social Survey (GSS) are less likely to think blacks are intelligent than they are to think whites are intelligent.
    ::偏见和歧视往往被混淆,但两者之间的基本区别在于:偏见是态度,而歧视则是行为。 更具体地说,种族和族裔是指对各类人的消极态度、信仰和判断,以及对这些类别的个别成员的负面态度、信仰和判断,因为他们认为是种族和/或族裔。 一个密切相关的概念是,或者认为某些种族或族裔群体不如自己的种族或族裔群体。 偏见和种族主义往往基于种族和族裔,或者由于种族和/或族裔而对人们的错误的概括化。 虽然美国不同种族和族裔群体之间确实存在文化和其他差异,但我们对这些群体的许多观点都是没有根据的,因此是陈规定型的。 白人对其它群体的陈规定型观点的例子出现在一般社会调查(GSS)中的白人答卷者认为黑人聪明程度比他们认为白人聪明的可能性要低。

    Figure 10.2  Perceptions by Non-Latino White Respondents of the Intelligence of White and Black Americans
    ::图10.2 非拉丁美洲白人答卷人对美国白人和黑人情报机构的看法

    Source: Data from General Social Survey, 2008.  
    ::资料来源:2008年社会普查数据。

    STEREOTYPES
    ::旧 教 教 教 教

    The terms stereotype, prejudice, discrimination, and racism are often used interchangeably in everyday conversation. But when discussing these terms from a sociological perspective, it is important to define them:  stereotypes  are oversimplified ideas about groups of people,  prejudice  refers to thoughts and feelings about those groups, while  discrimination  refers to actions toward them.  Racism  is a type of prejudice that involves set beliefs about a specific racial group.
    ::陈规定型、偏见、歧视和种族主义等术语常常在日常对话中互换使用。 但是,在从社会学角度讨论这些术语时,必须对它们进行定义:陈规定型过于简单化的关于群体的想法,偏见是指对这些群体的想法和感情,而歧视是指对他们采取的行动。种族主义是一种包含对特定种族群体的固定信仰的偏见。

    As stated above, stereotypes are oversimplified ideas about groups of people. Stereotypes can be based on race, ethnicity, age, gender, sexual orientation—almost any characteristic. They may be positive (usually about one’s own group, such as when women suggest they are less likely to complain about physical pain) but are often negative (usually toward other groups, such as when members of a dominant racial group suggest that a subordinate racial group is stupid or lazy). In either case, the stereotype is a generalization that doesn’t take individual differences into account.
    ::如上所述,陈规定型观念是对人群的过于简单化的观念;陈规定型观念可能基于种族、族裔、年龄、性别、性取向——几乎任何特征。 这些观念可能是积极的(通常针对个人群体,例如妇女认为她们不太可能抱怨身体痛苦),但往往是消极的(通常针对其他群体,例如主要种族群体成员认为从属种族群体是愚蠢或懒惰的 ) 。 在这两种情况下,陈规定型观念都是不考虑个人差异的笼统化。

    Where do stereotypes come from? In fact new stereotypes are rarely created; rather, they are recycled from subordinate groups that have assimilated into society and are reused to describe newly subordinate groups. For example, many stereotypes that are currently used to characterize black people were used earlier in American history to characterize Irish and Eastern European immigrants.
    ::陈规定型来自何方? 事实上,新的陈规定型很少产生;相反,这些陈规定型是从已经融入社会的从属群体中回收出来的,并被重新用来描述新从属群体。 比如,许多目前用来描述黑人特征的陈规定型在美国历史早期被用来描述爱尔兰和东欧移民特征。

    Sociologist Robert K.  Merton, proposed that a stereotype could become self fulfilling prophecy.    A self fulfilling prophecy describes how a statement may alter actions and therefore become true. A self-fulfilling prophecy is a cultural belief that becomes true because people act as though it is true .  In situations where many individuals act on the basis of an expectation, they may actually influence whether an incident will take place or not. The self-fulfilling prophecy has also been demonstrated in experiments where people justify their prejudices toward members of other ethnic groups. Once people come to believe the stereotypes of a minority group and self fulfilling prophecy come "true", people may find it more accepting to discriminate.  As a result of discrimination, racism can take place.  Racism is the belief that one's race or ethnic group is far superior to another race or ethnic group.  It is racism which throughout history has given way to acts of atrocity.  

    ::社会学家Robert K. Merton提议,陈规定型观念可以成为自我实现的预言。自我实现的预言描述了一种言论如何改变行动,从而成为真实。自我实现的预言是一种文化信仰,由于人们的行为是真实的而成为真实的。在许多人根据期望行事的情况下,他们实际上可能会影响事件是否发生。自我实现的预言还体现在人们为对其他族裔群体成员的偏见辩护的实验中。一旦人们开始相信少数群体的陈规定型观念,而自我实现的预言是“真实的 ” , 人们可能会发现它更容易接受歧视。由于歧视,种族主义可以发生。种族主义是一个人的种族或族裔群体比另一个种族或族裔群体优越得多的信念。种族主义是整个历史中暴行的产物。

    DISCRIMINATION
    ::歧视歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、歧视、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、、

    Often racial and ethnic prejudice lead to discrimination against the subordinate racial and ethnic groups in a given society.   in this context refers to the arbitrary denial of rights, privileges, and opportunities to members of these groups. The use of the word  arbitrary  emphasizes that these groups are being treated unequally not because of their lack of merit but because of their race and ethnicity.
    ::种族和族裔偏见往往导致在一个特定社会中对从属种族和族裔群体的歧视,在这方面,提到任意剥夺这些群体成员的权利、特权和机会,使用任意一词强调,这些群体受到不平等的待遇,不是因为他们没有功劳,而是因为他们的种族和族裔。

    Usually prejudice and discrimination go hand-in-hand, but Robert Merton (1949) Merton, R. K. (1949). Discrimination and the American creed. In R. M. MacIver (Ed.),  Discrimination and national welfare (pp. 99–126). New York, NY: Institute for Religious Studies.  stressed that this is not always the case. Sometimes we can be prejudiced and not discriminate, and sometimes we might not be prejudiced and still discriminate.   illustrates his perspective. The top-left cell and bottom-right cells consist of people who behave in ways we would normally expect. The top-left one consists of “active bigots,” in Merton’s terminology, people who are both prejudiced and discriminatory. An example of such a person is the white owner of an apartment building who dislikes people of color and refuses to rent to them. The bottom-right cell consists of “all-weather liberals,” as Merton called them, people who are neither prejudiced nor discriminatory. An example would be someone who holds no stereotypes about the various racial and ethnic groups and treats everyone the same regardless of her/his background.
    ::通常的偏见和歧视是手牵手的,但罗伯特·默顿(Robert Merton,1949年),雷顿(R.K.,1949年)。歧视和美国信仰。在R.M.MacIver(Ed.),《歧视与民族福利》(pp.99-126)。纽约:纽约宗教研究所(NY:宗教研究所)强调,这种情况并非总是如此。有时,我们可能会受到偏见,而不是歧视,有时我们可能不会受到偏见和歧视。我们也许不会偏见,甚至继续歧视。最左侧的细胞和底极右细胞是由那些我们通常期望的方式行事的人组成的。在默顿的术语中,左上半边是“活跃的狂人 ” , 包括既受偏见又受歧视的人。 这些人的一个例子就是一栋公寓的白人主人,他不喜欢有色人,拒绝租给他们。 右侧的牢房由“全天候自由人”组成,正如梅尔顿所说的那样,既不受偏见也不受歧视的人。一个例子是那些对各种种族和族裔群体没有成见的人。

    Table 10.1  The Relationship Between Prejudice and Discrimination
    ::表10.1 偏见和歧视之间的关系

    Prejudiced?
    Discriminates? Yes No
    Yes Active bigots Fair-weather liberals
    No Timid bigots All-weather liberals

    Source: Adapted from Merton, R. K. (1949). Discrimination and the American creed. In R. M. MacIver (Ed.), Discrimination and national welfare (pp. 99–126). New York, NY: Institute for Religious Studies.
    ::资料来源:改编自Merton,R.K.(1949年),《歧视和美国信仰》,载于R.M.MacIver(Ed.),《歧视与国民福利》(第99-126页)。 纽约:宗教研究所。


    The remaining two cells of the table in   are the more unexpected ones. On the bottom left, we see people who are prejudiced but who nonetheless do not discriminate; Merton called them “timid bigots.” An example would be white restaurant owners who do not like people of color but still serve them anyway because they want their business or are afraid of being sued if they do not serve them. At the top right, we see “fair-weather liberals”: people who are not prejudiced but who still discriminate. An example would be white store owners in the South during the segregation era who thought it was wrong to treat blacks worse than whites but who still refused to sell to them because they were afraid of losing white customers.
    ::餐桌中剩下的两个囚室更出人意料。 在左下角,我们看到有偏见,但却没有歧视的人;默顿称他们为“季米德重婚 ” 。 一个例子就是白人餐厅老板,他们不喜欢有色人种,但仍然为他们服务,因为他们想要自己的生意,或者害怕被起诉,如果他们不为他们服务。 在右上角,我们看到“公平天气自由派 ” : 那些没有偏见,但仍然有歧视的人。 一个例子就是隔离时代南方的白人店主,他们认为对待黑人比白人糟糕,但却拒绝出售给黑人,因为他们害怕失去白人顾客。

    Legal Discrimination
    ::法律歧视

    Segregation  refers to the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions. It is important to distinguish between  de jure  segregation (segregation that is enforced by law) and  de facto  segregation (segregation that occurs without laws but because of other factors). A stark example of  de jure  segregation is the apartheid movement of South Africa, which existed from 1948 to 1994. Under apartheid, black South Africans were stripped of their civil rights and forcibly relocated to areas that segregated them physically from their white compatriots. Only after decades of degradation, violent uprisings, and international advocacy was apartheid finally abolished.
    ::隔离是指两个群体的实际分离,特别是在居住地,但也包括在工作场所和社会职能方面,必须区分法律上的隔离(依法实施的隔离)和事实上的隔离(没有法律但因其他因素而发生的隔离),法律上的隔离的一个明显例子是南非的种族隔离运动,从1948年到1994年。南非的种族隔离运动从1948年到1994年一直存在。在种族隔离下,南非黑人的公民权利被剥夺,被强行迁移到与其白人同胞实际隔离的地区。直到几十年的堕落、暴力起义和国际宣传之后,种族隔离才最终被废除。

    De jure  segregation occurred in the United States for many years after the Civil War. During this time, many former Confederate states passed “Jim Crow” laws that required segregated facilities for blacks and whites. These laws were codified in 1896’s landmark Supreme Court case  Plessey v. Ferguson , which stated that “separate but equal” facilities were constitutional. For the next five decades, blacks were subjected to legalized discrimination, forced to live, work, and go to school in separate—but  unequal —facilities. It wasn’t until 1954 and the  Brown v. Board of Education  case that the Supreme Court declared that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal,” thus ending  de jure  segregation in the United States.
    ::内战之后,美国法律上的隔离已经存在多年了。 在此期间,许多前联邦州通过了“Jim Crow”法律,要求为黑人和白人提供隔离设施。 这些法律在1896年具有里程碑意义的最高法院案件Plessey v. Ferguson中被编纂成法典,其中指出“单独但平等”的设施是合宪的。 在未来五十年中,黑人遭受合法的歧视,被迫单独生活、工作和上学,但不平等。 直到1954年和布朗诉教育委员会案(Brown v. Council of Educt of Educt ) , 最高法院才宣布“单独教育设施本质上不平等 ” , 从而结束了美国法律上的隔离。

    A group of black men and an old car standing outside a billiard hall.

    In the “Jim Crow” South, it was legal to have “separate but equal” facilities for blacks and whites. (Photo courtesy of Library of Congress/Wikimedia Commons)
    ::在“Jim Crow”南部,为黑人和白人建立“单独但平等的”设施是合法的。

    De facto  segregation, however, cannot be abolished by any court mandate. Segregation is still alive and well in the United States, with different racial or ethnic groups often segregated by neighborhood, borough, or parish. Sociologists use segregation indices to measure racial segregation of different races in different areas. The indices employ a scale from zero to 100, where zero is the most integrated and 100 is the least. In the New York metropolitan area, for instance, the black-white segregation index was 79 for the years 2005–2009. This means that 79 percent of either blacks or whites would have to move in order for each neighborhood to have the same racial balance as the whole metro region (Population Studies Center 2010).
    ::但是,事实上的隔离不能由任何法院授权予以废除。隔离在美国仍然有效,不同种族或族裔群体经常被邻里、区或教区隔离。社会学家使用隔离指数来衡量不同地区不同种族的种族隔离。指数采用从零到100的等级,其中最一体化为零,最少为100。 例如,在纽约大都会地区,2005-2009年的黑白隔离指数为79。 这意味着79%的黑人或白人必须迁移,以使每个街区与整个地铁地区保持同样的种族平衡(人口研究中心,2010年)。

      

    Institutional Discrimination
    ::体制歧视

    Individual discrimination is important to address, but at least as consequential in today’s world is  , or discrimination that pervades the practices of whole institutions, such as housing, medical care, law enforcement, employment, and education. This type of discrimination does not just affect a few isolated people of color. Instead, it affects large numbers of individuals simply because of their race or ethnicity. Sometimes institutional discrimination is also based on gender, disability, and other characteristics.
    ::个人歧视固然重要,但至少对当今世界来说,歧视或贯穿于整个机构,如住房、医疗、执法、就业和教育等做法的歧视非常重要。 这种歧视不仅影响到少数孤立的肤色人。 相反,它仅仅因为种族或族裔而影响到大量个人。 有时,体制歧视也基于性别、残疾和其他特征。

    In the area of race and ethnicity, institutional discrimination often stems from prejudice, as was certainly true in the South during segregation. However, just as individuals can discriminate without being prejudiced, so can institutions when they engage in practices that seem to be racially neutral but in fact have a discriminatory effect. Individuals in institutions can also discriminate without realizing it. They make decisions that turn out upon close inspection to discriminate against people of color even if they did not mean to do so.
    ::在种族和族裔方面,体制性歧视往往源于偏见,在隔离期间,南方的情况当然如此,但是,正如个人可以歧视而不受歧视一样,当机构从事看来是种族中立但实际上具有歧视性影响的做法时,也可以歧视,机构内的个人也可以歧视而没有意识到这一点,他们作出经过密切检查的决定,歧视有色人种,即使他们无意这样做。

    SOURCES OF DISCRIMINATION AND PREJUDICE
    ::歧视原因和偏见问题

    Several theories and explanations have been brought forth to explain the development of discrimination and prejudice.  Sociologists often offer three categories:  sociological, psychological and economic.
    ::为了解释歧视和偏见的发展,提出了若干理论和解释,社会学家往往提供三类:社会学、心理学和经济学。

    Sociological Explanations
    ::社会学解释

    One popular explanation emphasizes  conformity and socialization  (also called  social learning theory ). In this view, people who are prejudiced are merely conforming to the culture in which they grow up, and prejudice is the result of socialization from parents, peers, the news media, and other various aspects of their culture. Supporting this view, studies have found that people tend to become more prejudiced when they move to areas where people are very prejudiced and less prejudiced when they move to locations where people are less prejudiced (Aronson, 2008). Aronson, E. (2008). The social animal  (10th ed.). New York, NY: Worth.  If people in the South today continue to be more prejudiced than those outside the South, even though legal segregation ended more than four decades ago, the influence of their culture on their socialization may help explain these beliefs.
    ::一种流行的解释强调一致性和社会化(也称为社会学习理论)。在这种观点中,受偏见的人只是符合他们成长的文化,偏见是来自父母、同龄人、新闻媒体和文化其他方面的社会化的结果。 支持这一观点的研究发现,人们在迁移到人们受到偏见程度很高、偏见程度较低的地区时往往会受到更多的偏见(Aronson,2008年;Aronson,E.(2008).社会动物(第10版)),纽约:值得。如果南方人今天比南方人继续受到更多的偏见,即使法律隔离在40多年前结束了,他们的文化对其社会化的影响可能有助于解释这些信仰。

    Although prejudice may not be part of the culture by enlarge, it may however be be a norm of the groups within the society.  Therefore, people may become prejudiced to maintain certain privileges.  If a person becomes part of a reference group and that group displays prejudice, then  that person may also behave in the same manner of the group by supporting and encouraging such prejudice ideologies.
    ::尽管偏见可能不是文化的一部分,但通过扩大可能不是文化的一部分,但它可能是社会各群体的一个规范,因此,人们可能因保留某些特权而受到损害,如果一个人成为咨商群体的一部分,而且该群体表现出偏见,那么此人也可能通过支持和鼓励这种偏见意识形态,以同样的方式对待该群体。

    Psychological Explanations
    ::心理解释

    One of the first social-psychological explanations of prejudice centered on the   (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950). Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswick, E., Levinson, D. J., & Sanford, R. N. (1950).  The authoritarian personality . New York, NY: Harper.   According to this view, authoritarian personalities develop in childhood in response to parents who practice harsh discipline. Individuals with authoritarian personalities emphasize such things as obedience to authority, a rigid adherence to rules, and low acceptance of people (out-groups) not like oneself. Many studies find strong racial and ethnic prejudice among such individuals (Sibley & Duckitt, 2008). Sibley, C. G., & Duckitt, J. (2008). Personality and prejudice: A meta-analysis and theoretical review.  Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12 , 248–279.  But whether their prejudice stems from their authoritarian personalities or instead from the fact that their parents were probably prejudiced themselves remains an important question.
    ::对偏见的第一批社会心理解释之一(Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswick, Levinson, & Sanford, 1950年)。Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswick, E., Levinson, D. J. & Sanford, R. N. (1950年)。专制人格。纽约州:哈珀。根据这一观点,专制人格在童年随着实行严厉纪律的家长而发展。专制人格的人强调服从权威、严格遵守规则、不接受不喜欢自己的人(群体外)等东西。 许多研究发现,这些个人中存在着强烈的种族和族裔偏见(Secelly & Duckit, E. G., & Duckit, J.(2008年)。 个人和偏见:一个元分析和理论审查。人格和社会心理学评论,12,248-279。 但他们的偏见是源于他们的专制性人格,还是来自他们父母可能损害自己的事实。


    Another early and still popular psychological explanation is called   ( Dollard, Doob, Miller, Mowrer, & Sears, 1939). Dollard, J., Doob, L. W., Miller, N. E., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.  In this view individuals who experience various kinds of problems become frustrated and tend to blame their troubles on groups that are often disliked in the real world (e.g., racial, ethnic, and religious minorities). These minorities are thus scapegoats for the real sources of people’s misfortunes. 

    Scapegoat theory , developed initially from Dollard’s (1939) Frustration-Aggression theory, suggests that the dominant group will displace their unfocused aggression onto a subordinate group. History has shown us many examples of the scapegoating of a subordinate group. An example from the last century is the way that Adolf Hitler was able to use the Jewish people as scapegoats for Germany’s social and economic problems. In the United States, recent immigrants have frequently been the scapegoat for the nation’s—or an individual’s—woes. Many states have enacted laws to disenfranchise immigrants; these laws are popular because they let the dominant group scapegoat a subordinate group.


    In the real world, scapegoating at a mass level has been quite common. In medieval Europe, Jews were commonly blamed and persecuted when economic conditions were bad or when war efforts were failing. After the bubonic plague broke out in 1348 and eventually killed more than one-third of all Europeans, Jews were blamed either for deliberately spreading the plague or for angering God because they were not Christian. When Germany suffered economic hardship after World War I, Jews again proved a convenient scapegoat, and anti-Semitism helped fuel the rise of Hitler and Nazism. 

    Authoritarian personalities are said to develop in childhood from harsh parental discipline and to be linked to racial and ethnic prejudice. Although many people with authoritarian personalities are prejudiced, it remains unclear whether their prejudice stems from their personalities or from their parents’ own prejudice.
    ::据说专制性人格在童年从严酷的家长纪律中发展出来,并与种族和族裔偏见相联系。 虽然许多具有专制性的人受到偏见,但他们的偏见是源于他们的个性还是源于他们父母自己的偏见,这一点仍不清楚。

    © Thinkstock   
    ::智商

    Economic Explanations
    ::经济解释

    The economic explanation of prejudice and discrimination emerge out of the competition of scarce resources.  Much of the white mob violence stemmed from whites’ concern that the groups they attacked threatened their jobs and other aspects of their lives. Thus lynchings of African Americans in the South increased when the Southern economy worsened and decreased when the economy improved (Tolnay & Beck, 1995). Tolnay, S. E., & Beck, E. M. (1995).  A festival of violence: An analysis of Southern lynchings, 1882–1930 . Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press.  Similarly, white mob violence against Chinese immigrants in the 1870s began after the railroad construction that employed so many Chinese immigrants slowed and the Chinese began looking for work in other industries. Whites feared that the Chinese would take jobs away from white workers and that their large supply of labor would drive down wages. Their assaults on the Chinese killed several people and prompted the passage by Congress of the Chinese Exclusion Act in 1882 that prohibited Chinese immigration.
    ::对偏见和歧视的经济解释产生于稀缺资源的竞争。白人暴民的暴力行为大部分源于白人担心他们攻击的团体威胁到他们的就业和其他生活。 因此,当南方经济在经济改善后恶化和下降时(Tolnay & Beck,1995年),南方的美籍黑人私刑增加了(Tolay & Beck,1995年)。Tolnay, S. E., & Beck, E. M.(1995年)。 暴力节:南方私刑分析,1882-1930年。Urbana, IL:伊利诺伊大学出版社。 类似地,1870年代,白暴徒对中国移民的暴力始于雇用如此多的中国移民的铁路建设之后,中国人开始寻找其他行业的工作。 白人担心中国人会从白人工人手中抢走工作,他们的大量劳动力供应会降低工资。 他们对中国人的攻击导致数人丧生,并促使国会在1882年通过禁止中国移民的《中国排斥法》。

    l
    ::升

    During the 1870s, whites feared that Chinese immigrants would take away their jobs. This fear led to white mob violence against the Chinese and to an act of Congress that prohibited Chinese immigration.
    ::1870年代,白人担心中国移民会失去工作。 这种担心导致白人暴徒对中国人采取暴力行动,导致国会采取行动禁止中国移民。

    Source: .
    ::资料来源:


    Patterns of Minority Group Treatment
    ::少数群体待遇模式


    Cultural Pluralism  
    Cultural Pluralism is represented by the ideal of the United States as a “salad bowl”: a great mixture of different cultures where each culture retains its own identity and yet adds to the flavor of the whole. True cultural pluralism is characterized by mutual respect on the part of all cultures, both dominant and subordinate, creating a multicultural environment of acceptance. An example of cultural pluralism is Switzerland. Switzerland has three official languages and one language for each of its three ethnic groups.  These ethnic groups live and work together peacefully and are loyal to Switzerland.   Some sociologists believe true cultural pluralism is a difficult goal to reach. 


    Assimilation  
    ::相同化

    Assimilation describes the process by which a minority individual or group gives up its own identity by taking on the characteristics of the dominant culture. In the United States, which has a history of welcoming and absorbing immigrants from different lands, assimilation has been a function of immigration.
    ::美国有着接纳和吸收来自不同土地的移民的历史,同化是移民的产物。

    A photo of the Statue of Liberty.

    For many immigrants to the United States, the Statue of Liberty is a symbol of freedom and a new life. Unfortunately, many immigrants have encountered prejudice and discrimination. (Photo courtesy of Mark Heard/flickr )
    ::对于美国的许多移民来说,自由女神像是自由和新生活的象征。 不幸的是,许多移民都遭遇了偏见和歧视。 (马克·赫米德/弗利克勒(Mark Chadd/Flickr)的慈善礼仪)

    Most Americans have immigrant ancestors. In relatively recent history, between 1890 and 1920, the United States became home to around 24 million immigrants. In the decades since then, further waves of immigrants have come to these shores and have eventually been absorbed into American culture, sometimes after facing extended periods of prejudice and discrimination. Assimilation may lead to the loss of the minority group’s cultural identity as they become absorbed into the dominant culture, but assimilation has minimal to no impact on the majority group’s cultural identity.
    Some groups may keep only symbolic gestures of their original ethnicity. For instance, many Irish Americans may celebrate Saint Patrick’s Day, many Hindu Americans enjoy a Diwali festival, and many Mexican Americans may celebrate Cinco de Mayo. However, for the rest of the year, other aspects of their originating culture may be forgotten.
    Assimilation is antithetical to the “salad bowl” created by pluralism; rather than maintaining their own cultural flavor, subordinate cultures give up their own traditions in order to conform to their new environment. Sociologists measure the degree to which immigrants have assimilated to a new culture with four benchmarks: socioeconomic status, spatial concentration, language assimilation, and intermarriage. When faced with racial and ethnic discrimination, it can be difficult for new immigrants to fully assimilate. Language assimilation, in particular, can be a formidable barrier, limiting employment and educational options and therefore constraining growth in socioeconomic status.



    Segregation
    Segregation refers to the physical separation of two groups, particularly in residence, but also in workplace and social functions. It is important to distinguish between de jure segregation (segregation that is enforced by law) and de facto segregation (segregation that occurs without laws but because of other factors). De jure segregation occurred in the United States for many years after the Civil War. During this time, many former Confederate states passed “Jim Crow” laws that required segregated facilities for blacks and whites. De facto segregation, however, cannot be abolished by any court mandate. Segregation is still alive and well in the United States, with different racial or ethnic groups often segregated by neighborhood, borough, or parish. 


    Subjugation
    Subjugation is the practice of gaining control over groups through the use of force.  Slavery the owning of one person by another person is the worst example of subjugation. There have been many examples of slavery throughout history.  A more recent example of subjugation is South Africa's system of apartheid.  By the mid 1990's, through international opposition the system of apartheid began to be dissolved.


    Expulsion
    Expulsion refers to a subordinate group being forced, by a dominant group, to leave a certain area or country. As seen in the examples of the Trail of Tears and the Holocaust, expulsion can be a factor in genocide. However, it can also stand on its own as a destructive group interaction. Expulsion has often occurred historically with an ethnic or racial basis. In the United States, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 in 1942, after the Japanese government’s attack on Pearl Harbor. The Order authorized the establishment of internment camps for anyone with as little as one-eighth Japanese ancestry (i.e., one great-grandparent who was Japanese). Over 120,000 legal Japanese residents and Japanese American citizens, many of them children, were held in these camps for up to four years, despite the fact that there was never any evidence of collusion or espionage. (In fact, many Japanese Americans continued to demonstrate their loyalty to the United States by serving in the American military during the War.) In the 1990's, the U.S. executive branch issued a formal apology for this expulsion; reparation efforts continue today.

    Population Transfer
    Population transfer occurs when a dominant group in society separates itself from a minority group by moving the minority group to another territory through either direct or indirect means.  Direct transfer involves the forceful removal of people.  Indirect transfer  occurs when the dominant group makes the minority group's existence so unbearable to the point of them leaving. Most of the time the forced transfer of people is based on ethnicity or religion. 


    Genocide

    Genocide , the deliberate annihilation of a targeted (usually subordinate) group, is the most toxic intergroup relationship. Historically, we can see that genocide has included both the intent to exterminate a group and the function of exterminating of a group, intentional or not.
    ::种族灭绝,蓄意消灭目标(通常是从属)群体,是最有毒的集团间关系。 从历史上看,我们可以看到种族灭绝既包括消灭集团的意图,也包括消灭有意或无意消灭集团的功能。

    Possibly the most well-known case of genocide is Hitler’s attempt to exterminate the Jewish people in the first part of the 20th century. Also known as the Holocaust, the explicit goal of Hitler’s “Final Solution” was the eradication of European Jewry, as well as the decimation of other minority groups such as Catholics, people with disabilities, and homosexuals. With forced emigration, concentration camps, and mass executions in gas chambers, Hitler’s Nazi regime was responsible for the deaths of 12 million people, six million of whom were Jewish. Hitler’s intent was clear, and the high Jewish death toll certainly indicates that Hitler and his regime committed genocide. But how do we understand genocide that is not so overt and deliberate?
    ::最著名的种族灭绝案例或许是希特勒试图在20世纪上半叶消灭犹太人民。 希特勒的“最后解决”的明确目标是消灭欧洲犹太人以及消灭其他少数民族群体,如天主教徒、残疾人和同性恋。 随着强迫移民、集中营和在毒气室大规模处决,希特勒的纳粹政权对1200万人的死亡负有责任,其中600万人是犹太人。 希特勒的意图是明确的,犹太人的死讯率很高肯定表明希特勒及其政权犯下了种族灭绝。 但我们如何理解非明目张胆和蓄意的种族灭绝呢?

    During the European colonization of the United States, some historians estimate that Native American populations dwindled from approximately 12 million people in the year 1500 to barely 237,000 Native Americans by the year 1900 (Lewy 2004). European settlers coerced American Indians off their own lands, often causing thousands of deaths in forced removals, such as occurred in the Cherokee or Potawatomi Trail of Tears. Settlers also enslaved Native Americans and forced them to give up their religious and cultural practices. But the major cause of Native American death was neither slavery nor war nor forced removal: it was the introduction of European diseases and Indians’ lack of immunity to them. Smallpox, diphtheria, and measles flourished among indigenous American tribes who had no exposure to the diseases and no ability to fight them. Quite simply, these diseases decimated the tribes. How planned this genocide was remains a topic of contention. Some argue that the spread of disease was an unintended effect of conquest, while others believe it was intentional with rumors of smallpox-infected blankets being distributed as “gifts” to tribes.
    ::在美国的欧洲殖民统治期间,一些历史学家估计,美洲原住民人口从1500年的大约1 200万人减少到1900年的仅237 000名美洲原住民(Lewy,2004年)。欧洲定居者强迫美国印第安人离开自己的土地,常常在被迫迁移中造成数千人死亡,例如在切罗基或波塔瓦托米的眼泪坑中。 定居者还奴役美洲原住民,迫使他们放弃他们的宗教和文化习俗。 但美洲原住民死亡的主要原因既不是奴隶制度,也不是战争,也不是被迫迁移:这是欧洲疾病的引入,印度人对他们缺乏免疫力。 小天花、白喉和麻疹在土著美洲部落中肆虐无忌惮,他们没有接触这些疾病,也没有抵抗这些疾病的能力。 简单地说,这些疾病是如何毁灭了这些部落。 这场种族灭绝的策划仍然是争论的主题。 有些人认为,疾病传播是征服的意外效应,而另一些人则认为,这是故意把天花毯子作为“赠予”部落的谣言。

    Importantly, genocide is not a just a historical concept, but one practiced today. Recently, ethnic and geographic conflicts in the Darfur region of Sudan have led to hundreds of thousands of deaths. As part of an ongoing land conflict, the Sudanese government and their state-sponsored Janjaweed militia have led a campaign of killing, forced displacement, and systematic rape of Darfuri people. Although a treaty was signed in 2011, the peace is fragile and may break under pressure.
    ::重要的是,种族灭绝不仅仅是一个历史概念,而是一个当今实践的概念。 最近,苏丹达尔富尔地区的族裔和地理冲突导致数十万人死亡。 作为持续不断的土地冲突的一部分,苏丹政府及其国家支持的金戈威德民兵领导了一场杀戮、强迫流离失所和蓄意强奸达尔富尔人民的运动。 尽管2011年签署了条约,但和平是脆弱的,可能会在压力下崩溃。