Section outline

  • General

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  • 经济机构

    Objectives
    ::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标

    Analyze the difference between the capitalist and the socialist economic systems.
    ::分析资本主义和社会主义经济体系之间的区别。

    Explain the developments that have changed the American economic system.
    ::解释改变美国经济体系的事态发展。

    Describe industrial economic systems and postindustrial societies.
    ::描述工业经济体系和工业后社会。


    Universal Generalizations
    ::普遍化

    Every society has certain needs and wants that must be met in order for health and happiness to be achieved.
    ::每个社会都有一定的需要和愿望,必须满足这些需要和愿望,才能实现健康和幸福。

    The need for economic institutions is primarily in the problem of scarcity.
    ::对经济机构的需求主要在于稀缺问题。

    All economics systems comprise three sectors.
    ::所有经济体系由三个部门组成。

    In preindustrial societies, there is little technological development.
    ::工业前社会几乎没有技术发展。

    Technological advances changes the nature of work.
    ::技术进步改变了工作性质。

    In a capitalist system, the economy is regulated by self-interest and market competition.
    ::在资本主义制度中,经济受自我利益和市场竞争的制约。

    In a socialist system, economic activity is controlled by social need and by the government.
    ::在社会主义制度中,经济活动受社会需要和政府控制。

    The United States is one of the most powerful economies in the world.
    ::美国是世界上最强大的经济体之一。

    The greatest change in American economy is e-commerce.
    ::美国经济的最大变化是电子商务。


    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    Do you think you could survive without money?
    ::你以为没有钱你活得下去吗?

    Which economic system would you prefer to live under capitalist or socialist?
    ::你想生活在资本主义或社会主义制度之下吗?

    How do economic basics affect society?
    ::经济基础对社会的影响如何?

    What three questions must every society answer?
    ::每个社会必须回答什么三个问题?

    How did the American economy change during the 1900’s?
    ::美国经济在1900年代是如何变化的?

    How has the rise of corporate capitalism changed the relationship between business ownership and control?
    ::企业资本主义的兴起如何改变了企业所有权和控制之间的关系?

    What qualities must a successful entrepreneur possess?
    ::成功的企业家必须具备什么素质?

    How does entrepreneurship affect the economy?
    ::创业对经济有何影响?

    Economic Development
    ::经济发展 经济发展

    When we hear the term  economy , it is usually in the context of how the economy “is doing”: Is inflation soaring or under control? Is the economy growing or shrinking? Is unemployment rising, declining, or remaining stable? Are new college graduates finding jobs easily or not? All these questions concern the economy, but sociologists define   more broadly as the social institution that organizes the production, distribution, and consumption of a society’s goods and services. Defined in this way, the economy touches us all.
    ::当我们听到“经济”一词时,通常是在经济“在做 ” : 通胀是否在飞涨或控制之下? 经济是增长还是萎缩? 失业率是否在上升、下降还是保持稳定? 新的大学毕业生是否容易找到工作? 所有这些问题都与经济有关,但社会学家更广义地定义了组织社会商品和服务生产、分配和消费的社会机构。 以这种方式定义,经济会触及我们所有人。

    Economy is one of human society’s earliest social structures. Our earliest forms of writing (such as Sumerian clay tablets) were developed to record transactions, payments, and debts between merchants. As societies grow and change, so do their economies. The economy of a small farming community is very different from the economy of a large nation with advanced technology. In this chapter, we will examine different types of economic systems and how they have functioned in various societies.
    ::经济是人类社会最早的社会结构之一。 我们最早的写作形式(如苏美尔粘土片)是用来记录商人之间的交易、支付和债务的。 随着社会的增长和变化,他们的经济也是如此。 小型农业社区的经济与拥有先进技术的大国的经济大不相同。 在本章中,我们将审视不同类型的经济体系及其在不同社会中的运作方式。


    The economy is composed of three sectors. The   is the part of the economy that takes and  uses raw materials directly from the natural environment. Its activities include agriculture, fishing, forestry, and mining. The   of the economy transforms raw materials into finished products and is essentially the manufacturing industry. Finally, the   is the part of the economy that provides services rather than products; its activities include clerical work, health care, teaching, and information technology services.
    ::经济由三个部门组成,即直接从自然环境中获取和使用原材料的经济部分,其活动包括农业、渔业、林业和采矿,将原材料转化为制成品,主要是制造业,最后是提供服务而不是产品的经济部分,其活动包括文书工作、保健、教学和信息技术服务。

    Societies differ in many ways, but they all have to produce, distribute, and consume goods and services. How this happens depends on which sectors of the economy are most important. This latter variable in turn depends heavily on the level of a society’s development. Generally speaking, the less developed a society’s economy, the more important its primary sector; the more developed a society’s economy, the more important its tertiary sector. As societies developed economically over the centuries, the primary sector became less important and the tertiary sector became more important. Let’s see how this happened.
    ::社会在许多方面各不相同,但是它们都必须生产、分配和消费商品和服务。 这种情况的发生取决于哪个经济部门最为重要。 后一种变数反过来又在很大程度上取决于社会发展的水平。 一般来说,社会经济越不发达,其初级部门就越重要;社会经济越发达,其第三产业部门就越重要。 随着几个世纪的经济发展,第一产业变得越不重要,第三产业部门也变得更加重要。 让我们看看这种情况是如何发生的。


    In figure (a), a photograph of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin is shown.

    In figure (b), a photograph of J.P. Morgan is shown.

    Vladimir Ilyich Lenin was one of the founders of Russian communism. J.P. Morgan was one of the most influential capitalists in history. They have very different views on how economies should be run. (Photos (a) and (b) courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)
    ::弗拉基米尔·伊利希·列宁是俄罗斯共产主义的创始人之一。 J.P.摩根是历史上最具影响力的资本主义者之一。 他们对于经济的运行方式有着截然不同的观点。 (Photos (a) 和 (b) 由维基媒体公域提供)


    The dominant economic systems of the modern era have been capitalism and socialism, and there have been many variations of each system across the globe. Countries have switched systems as their rulers and economic fortunes have changed. For example, Russia has been transitioning to a market-based economy since the fall of communism in that region of the world. Vietnam, where the economy was devastated by the Vietnam War, restructured to a state-run economy in response, and more recently has been moving toward a socialist-style market economy. In the past, other economic systems reflected the societies that formed them. Many of these earlier systems lasted centuries. These changes in economies raise many questions for sociologists. What are these older economic systems? How did they develop? Why did they fade away? What are the similarities and differences between older economic systems and modern ones?
    ::当今时代占主导地位的经济体系是资本主义和社会主义,全球每个体系都存在许多差异。 国家以统治者的身份转换了体系,经济财富也发生了变化。 例如,自世界这一地区共产主义倒台以来,俄罗斯就一直在向市场经济转型。 越南的经济受到越南战争的破坏,经过改组成为国有经济,最近又转向社会主义式市场经济。 过去,其他经济体系反映了形成这些体系的社会。许多早期的体系持续了几个世纪。这些经济体的这些变化给社会学家提出了许多问题。这些旧的经济体系是什么?它们是如何发展的?它们为什么消退?旧的经济体系和现代经济体系之间有什么相似之处和差异呢?


    Preindustrial Societies
    ::工业前社会学会

    The earliest societies were  hunting-and-gathering  societies in which people eked out a meager existence by hunting animals and gathering plants to feed themselves. Most of their waking hours were devoted to these two tasks, and no separate economic institution for the production and distribution of goods and services existed. The  horticultural and pastoral  societies that next developed also lacked a separate economy. Although people in these societies raised animals and/or grew crops and were better off than their hunting-and-gathering counterparts, these tasks, too, were done within the family unit and monopolized most of their time. No separate institution for the production and distribution of these sources of food was involved.
    ::最早的社会是狩猎和采集社会,人们在其中通过狩猎和采集植物来养活自己,而捕猎和采集动物来养活自己,因此,在他们醒悟的几个小时里,大部分时间都用于这两项任务,没有单独的生产和分销商品和服务的经济机构,接下来发展的园艺和畜牧社会也缺乏单独的经济,虽然这些社会中的人饲养动物和(或)种植作物,并且比狩猎和采集植物的同行们生活得更好,但这些任务也是在家庭单位内完成的,大部分时间是垄断的,没有单独的生产和分配这些食物来源的机构参与其中。

    This separate institution—the economy—finally did appear with the advent of  agricultural  societies about 5,000 years ago. These societies were able to produce food surpluses thanks to the invention of the plow and the wheel and other technological advances. These surpluses led to extensive trade within the societies themselves and also with other societies. The rise of trade was the first appearance of a separate economy. People also had to make the plows and wheels and repair them when they broke, and new  crafts  jobs arose to perform these functions. These jobs, too, marked the development of a separate economy. Despite this development, most people’s work still took place in or very near their homes. Craftspeople and merchants may have been part of the new economy, but most still worked out of their homes or very near them.
    ::这一独立的体制—经济—终于随着大约5 000年前农业社会的出现而出现;这些社会由于种植犁和轮子以及其他技术进步的发明而能够生产出粮食盈余;这些盈余导致社会内部以及与其他社会的广泛贸易;贸易的兴起是独立经济的首次出现;人们还不得不制造犁和轮子,并在他们破产时加以修理,新的手工艺工作也出现来履行这些功能;这些就业机会也标志着独立经济的发展。 尽管取得了这一发展,但大多数人的工作仍然在他们家中或离家很近的地方进行。 工匠和商人可能是新经济的一部分,但大多仍然在他们家或离家很近的地方工作。


    Industrialization and the Division of Labor
    ::工业化和分工

    Work and home finally began to separate in the 1700s and 1800s as machines and factories became the primary means of production with the emergence of industrial societies. For the first time, massive numbers of people worked in locations separate from their families, and they worked not for themselves and their families but for an employer. Whole industries developed to make the machines and build the factories and to use the machines and factories to manufacture household goods, clothing, and many other products. As should be clear, the secondary sector of the economy quickly became dominant. Perhaps inevitably it led to a growth in the tertiary (service) sector to respond to the demands of an industrial economy. For example, enterprises such as banks emerged to handle the money that industrialization brought not only to people with names like Carnegie and Rockefeller but also to a growing middle class of factory managers and the businesspeople that bought and sold the products that factories were producing.
    ::在1700年代和1800年代,随着工业社会兴起,机器和工厂成为主要生产手段,工厂和工作终于开始分离;第一次,大批人在远离家庭的地方工作,他们不是为自己和家庭工作,而是为雇主工作;整个工业发展起来,制造机器,建造工厂,利用机器和工厂制造家用商品、服装和许多其他产品;应该清楚的是,经济的第二部门迅速成为主导部门;也许不可避免地,它导致第三(服务业)部门的增长,以应对工业经济的需求;例如,银行等企业兴起,处理工业化带来的钱财,不仅给卡内基和洛克菲勒等名字的人,而且给越来越多的中产阶级工厂经理和买卖工厂生产的产品的商人。

    One important consequence of industrialization was the  specialization  of work, more commonly called the  . In agricultural societies, the craftspeople who made plows, wheels, and other objects would make the whole object, not just a part of it, and then sell it themselves to a buyer. With the advent of the division of labor under industrialization, this process became more specialized: some factory workers would make only one part of an object, other factory workers would make a second part, and so on; other workers would package and ship the item; and still other workers would sell it. This division of labor meant that workers became separated from the fruits of their labor, to paraphrase Karl Marx, who also worried that the type of work just described was much more repetitive and boring for workers than the craft work that characterized earlier societies. Because of these problems, Marx said, workers in industrial societies were alienated both from their work and by their work.
    ::工业化的一个重要后果是工作专业化,更常见地被称为“工匠 ” 。 在农业社会,生产犁、轮和其他物品的手工艺人可以将整个物品,而不仅仅是其一部分,然后将它卖给买主。 随着工业化下分工的出现,这一过程变得更加专业化:一些工厂工人只能将一个物品的一部分变成另一部分,其他工厂工人将做第二部分,等等;其他工人将包装和装运该物品;其他工人将把它卖掉。这种分工意味着工人将与其劳动成果分离,用Karl Marx的话说,他担心刚才描述的工作类型对工人来说比早先社会的手工艺工作更重复和无聊。 Marx说,由于这些问题,工业社会中的工人被疏远于他们的工作和工作。

    Postindustrial Societies
    ::工业后社会协会

     Today much of the world has moved from an industrial economy to a postindustrial economy. This is the  information age , in which smartphones, netbooks, tablets, and other high-tech equipment have begun to replace machines and factories as the major means of production and in which the tertiary sector has supplanted the secondary sector. Although the information age has brought with it jobs and careers unimaginable a generation ago, it has also meant that a college education has become increasingly important for stable and well-paid employment. Postindustrial economies, then, are leaving behind workers without college degrees, who used to fare well in the manufacturing industries.
    ::如今,世界大部分地区已经从工业经济向后工业经济转变。 这就是信息时代,智能手机、网书、平板电脑和其他高科技设备开始取代机器和工厂作为主要生产手段,第三产业部门取代了第二产业部门。 尽管信息时代带来了一代人前无法想象的工作和职业,但它也意味着大学教育对于稳定和高薪就业越来越重要。 后工业经济体则将没有大学学位的工人抛在后面,他们过去在制造业表现良好。

    One way scholars understand the development of different types of societies (like agricultural, industrial, and postindustrial) is by examining their economies in terms of four sectors: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. Each has a different focus. The primary sector extracts and produces raw materials (like metals and crops). The secondary sector turns those raw materials into finished goods. The tertiary sector provides services: child care, health care, and money management. Finally, the quaternary sector produces ideas; these include the research that leads to new technologies, the management of information, and a society’s highest levels of education and the arts (Kenessey 1987).
    ::学者们理解不同类型社会(如农业、工业和工业后)发展的方式之一是从四个部门审查经济:第一、第二、第三和第四产业。每个部门都有不同的重点。初级部门提取和生产原材料(如金属和作物)。第二产业部门将这些原材料转化为制成品。第三产业部门提供服务:儿童保育、保健和资金管理。最后,四产业部门提出一些想法,其中包括导致新技术的研究、信息管理以及社会最高水平的教育和艺术(1987年,肯尼西)。

    In underdeveloped countries, the majority of the people work in the primary sector. As economies develop, more and more people are employed in the secondary sector. In well-developed economies, such as those in the United States, Japan, and Western Europe, the majority of the workforce is employed in service industries. In the United States, for example, almost 80 percent of the workforce is employed in the tertiary sector (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2011).

    ::在欠发达国家,大多数人口在初级部门工作,随着经济发展,越来越多的人受雇于二级部门,在美国、日本和西欧等发达经济体,大多数劳动力受雇于服务业,例如,在美国,几乎80%的劳动力受雇于第三产业(美国劳动统计局,2011年)。

    The rapid increase in computer use in all aspects of daily life is a main reason for the transition to an information economy. Fewer people are needed to work in factories because computerized robots now handle many of the tasks. Other manufacturing jobs have been outsourced to less-developed countries as a result of the developing global economy. The growth of the internet has created industries that exist almost entirely online. Within industries, technology continues to change how goods are produced. For instance, the music and film industries used to produce physical products like CDs and DVDs for distribution. Now those goods are increasingly produced digitally and streamed or downloaded at a much lower physical manufacturing cost. Information and the wherewithal to use it creatively become commodities in a postindustrial economy. 
    ::计算机在日常生活所有方面的使用迅速增加是向信息经济过渡的主要原因。由于计算机机器人现在承担许多任务,工厂需要的工人较少。其他制造业工作由于全球经济发展而外包给欠发达国家。互联网的增长创造了几乎完全在线的产业。在工业中,技术继续改变商品生产方式。例如,音乐和电影工业用来生产CD和DVD等实物产品以供销售。现在,这些商品越来越多地以数字化生产、流传或下载,实际制造成本要低得多。信息以及使用信息的手段在后工业经济中成为创造性商品。


    With the information age has also come an increasing globalization of the economy. The Internet connects workers and industries across the world, and multinational corporations have plants in many countries that make products for consumers in other countries. What happens economically in one part of the world can greatly affect what happens economically in other parts of the world. If the economies of Asia sour, their demand for U.S. products may decline, forcing a souring of the U.S. economy. A financial crisis in Greece and other parts of Europe during the spring of 2010 caused the stock markets in the United States to plunge. The world is indeed getting smaller all the time. We will return later to the implications of the postindustrial economy for U.S. workers.
    ::随着信息时代的到来,经济也在日益全球化。 互联网将世界各地的工人和产业连接起来,跨国公司在很多国家都有工厂,为其他国家的消费者生产产品。 在世界某个地区,在经济上发生的事情会极大地影响世界其他地区的经济变化。 如果亚洲经济体对美国产品的需求可能下降,迫使美国经济陷入困境。 2010年春季希腊和欧洲其他地区的金融危机导致美国股市暴跌。 事实上,世界正在不断缩小。 我们稍后会回到后工业化经济对美国工人的影响上来。

    Information technology, such as the smartphones depicted here, are a hallmark of the postindustrial economy. This economy is leaving behind workers without college degrees.
    ::这里所描述的智能手机等信息技术是后工业经济的标志。 后工业经济正在让工人失去大学学位。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商


    Economic Models

    The two major economic systems in modern societies are capitalism and socialism. In practice, no one society is purely capitalist or socialist, so it is helpful to think of capitalism and socialism as lying on opposite ends of a continuum. Societies’ economies mix elements of both capitalism and socialism but do so in varying degrees, so that some societies lean toward the capitalist end of the continuum, while other societies lean toward the socialist end. For example, the United States is a capitalist nation, but the government still regulates many industries to varying degrees. The industries usually would prefer less regulation, while their critics usually prefer more regulation. The degree of such regulation was the point of controversy after the failure of banks and other financial institutions in 2008 and 2009 and after the BP oil spill in 2010. Let’s see how capitalism and socialism differ.
    ::现代社会的两个主要经济体系是资本主义和社会主义。 实际上,没有一个社会是纯粹的资本主义或社会主义,因此,将资本主义和社会主义视为一个连续体的对立面是有用的。 社会的经济混合了资本主义和社会主义两个要素,但在不同程度上都是如此,因此有些社会倾向于连续体的资本主义末端,而另一些社会则倾向于社会主义末端。 比如,美国是一个资本主义国家,但政府仍然在不同程度上监管着许多产业。 产业通常倾向于更少的监管,而批评者通常更喜欢更多的监管。 这种监管的程度在2008年和2009年银行和其他金融机构倒闭之后以及2010年英国石油公司石油泄漏之后成为争议的焦点。 让我们看看资本主义和社会主义如何不同。


    Capitalism
    ::资本主义

     is an economic system in which the means of production are privately owned. By  means of production , we mean everything—land, tools, technology, and so forth—that is needed to produce goods and services. As outlined by famed Scottish philosopher Adam Smith (1723–1790), widely considered the founder of modern economics, the most important goal of capitalism is the pursuit of personal profit (Smith, 1776/1910). Smith, A. (1910).  The wealth of nations . London, England: J. M. Dent & Sons; New York, NY: E. P. Dutton. (Original work published 1776)  As individuals seek to maximize their own wealth, society as a whole is said to benefit. Goods get produced, services are rendered, people pay for the goods and services they need and desire, and the economy and society as a whole prosper.
    ::资本主义最重要的目标是追求个人利润(Smith, 1776/2010, Smith, A. (1910)),各国财富。 伦敦、英格兰、J.M. Dent & Sons;纽约、纽约:E.P. Dutton(原件出版1776 ) , 个人为了尽量扩大自己的财富,据说整个社会都会受益。 产品生产、服务提供、人民为他们需要和渴望的商品和服务支付费用,以及整个经济和社会繁荣。

    As people pursue personal profit under capitalism, they compete with each other for the greatest profits. Businesses try to attract more demand for their products in many ways, including lowering prices, creating better products, and advertising how wonderful their products are. In capitalist theory, such competition helps ensure the best products at the lowest prices, again benefiting society as a whole.   Such competition also helps ensure that no single party controls an entire market.  According to Smith, the competition that characterizes capitalism should be left to operate on its own, free of government intervention or control. For this reason, capitalism is often referred to as  laissez-faire  (French for “leave alone”) capitalism, and terms to describe capitalism include the  free-enterprise system  and the free market .
    ::当人们在资本主义下追求个人利润时,他们相互竞争以获得最大利润。 企业试图以多种方式吸引对其产品更多的需求,包括降低价格、创造更好的产品以及宣传其产品是多么美妙。 在资本主义理论中,这种竞争有助于以最低价格确保最佳产品,再次使整个社会受益。 这种竞争也有助于确保没有一个单一政党控制整个市场。 根据史密斯,资本主义特有的竞争应该留给自己经营,不受政府干预或控制。 因此,资本主义常常被称为自由自由(法语“独处 ” ) 资本主义,而描述资本主义的条件包括自由企业体系和自由市场。

    The hallmarks of capitalism, then, are private ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of profit, competition for profit, and the lack of government intervention in this competition.
    ::因此,资本主义的标志是私人拥有生产手段、追求利润、竞争利润和政府不干预这种竞争。

    One important hallmark of capitalism is competition for profit. This competition is thought to help ensure the best products at the lowest prices, as companies will ordinarily try to keep their prices as low as possible to attract buyers and maximize their sales.
    ::资本主义的一个重要特征是追求利润的竞争。 这一竞争被认为有助于确保以最低价格获得最佳产品,因为公司通常会尽量降低价格,以吸引买家和最大限度地实现销售。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商

    Capitalism in Practice
    ::实践中的资本主义

    As capitalists began to dominate the economies of many countries during the Industrial Revolution, the rapid growth of businesses and their tremendous profitability gave some owners the capital they needed to create enormous corporations that could monopolize an entire industry. Many companies controlled all aspects of the production cycle for their industry, from the raw materials to the production to the stores in which they were sold. These companies were able to use their wealth to buy out or stifle any competition.
    ::随着资本主义在工业革命期间开始主导许多国家的经济,企业的迅速增长及其巨大的盈利能力使一些拥有者拥有了创建能够垄断整个产业的庞大企业所需的资本。 许多公司控制着其产业生产周期的所有方面,从原材料到生产到销售的商店。 这些公司能够利用自己的财富购买或扼杀任何竞争。

    In the United States, the predatory tactics used by these large monopolies caused the government to take action. Starting in the late 1800s, the government passed a series of laws that broke up monopolies and regulated how key industries—such as transportation, steel production, and oil and gas exploration and refining—could conduct business.
    ::在美国,这些大型垄断企业使用的掠夺策略导致政府采取行动。 从1800年代末开始,政府通过了一系列法律,打破了垄断,并规范了运输、钢铁生产、石油和天然气勘探和提炼等关键行业如何开展业务。

    The United States is considered a capitalist country. However, the U.S. government has a great deal of influence on private companies through the laws it passes and the regulations enforced by government agencies. Through taxes, regulations on wages, guidelines to protect worker safety and the environment, plus financial rules for banks and investment firms, the government exerts a certain amount of control over how all companies do business. State and federal governments also own, operate, or control large parts of certain industries, such as the post office, schools, hospitals, highways and railroads, and many water, sewer, and power utilities. Debate over the extent to which the government should be involved in the economy remains an issue of contention today. Some criticize such involvements as socialism (a type of state-run economy), while others believe intervention is necessary to protect the rights of workers and the well-being of the general population.
    ::美国被视为资本主义国家,但美国政府通过其通过的法律和政府机构执行的条例对私营公司具有很大影响力。通过税收、工资条例、保护工人安全和环境的指导方针,加上银行和投资公司的金融规则,政府对所有公司的运作方式实行一定的控制。州政府和联邦政府还拥有、经营或控制某些行业的大部分,如邮局、学校、医院、公路和铁路,以及许多供水、下水道和电力公用事业。关于政府参与经济的程度的辩论如今仍然是一个有争议的问题。有些人批评诸如社会主义(一种国家经营的经济 ) , 而另一些人则认为干预对于保护工人的权利以及普通民众的福祉是必要的。

     Socialism
    ::社会主义社会主义

    A colorful painting featuring Mao Zedong and other symbols of Chinese communism is shown here.

    The economies of China and Russia after World War II are examples of one form of socialism. (Photo courtesy of Wikimedia Commons)
    ::第二次世界大战后中国和俄罗斯的经济是某种形式的社会主义的例子。


    The features of socialism are the opposite of those just listed for capitalism and were spelled out most famously by Karl Marx.   is an economic system in which the means of production are collectively owned, usually by the government. Whereas the United States has several airlines that are owned by airline corporations, a socialist society might have one government-owned airline.
    ::社会主义的特征与刚刚被列入资本主义名单的特征正好相反,并且最著名的是卡尔·马克思(Karl Marx)所描述的。 社会主义是一个经济体系,生产手段通常由政府集体拥有,通常由政府集体拥有。 尽管美国拥有几家航空公司,但社会主义社会可能拥有一家政府拥有的航空公司。

    The most important goal of socialism is not the pursuit of personal profit but rather work for the collective good: the needs of society are considered more important than the needs of the individual. Because of this view, individuals do not compete with each other for profit; instead they work together for the good of everyone. If under capitalism the government is supposed to let the economy alone, under socialism the government controls the economy.
    ::社会主义最重要的目标不是追求个人利润,而是为集体利益而工作:社会需要被认为比个人需要更重要。 由于这一观点,个人不为利润而相互竞争,而是为每个人的利益而共同努力。 如果在资本主义下政府应该让经济单独存在,在社会主义下政府控制经济。

    The ideal outcome of socialism, said Marx, would be a truly classless or  communist  society. In such a society all members are equal, and stratification does not exist. Obviously Marx’s vision of a communist society was never fulfilled, and nations that called themselves communist departed drastically from his vision of communism.
    ::马克思认为,社会主义的理想结果将是一个真正的无阶级或共产主义社会。 在这样一个社会里,所有成员都是平等的,分层化并不存在。 显然,马克思对共产主义社会的看法从未实现,自称共产主义的国家也彻底背离了共产主义的观念。

    The focus in socialism is on benefitting society, whereas capitalism seeks to benefit the individual. Socialists claim that a capitalistic economy leads to inequality, with unfair distribution of wealth and individuals who use their power at the expense of society. Socialism strives, ideally, to control the economy to avoid the problems inherent in capitalism.
    ::社会主义的焦点在于让社会受益,而资本主义则寻求让个人受益。 社会主义者声称资本主义经济导致不平等,财富分配不公,个人以牺牲社会为代价使用权力。 社会主义最好努力控制经济以避免资本主义所固有的问题。

    Societies can be ranked on a continuum ranging from mostly capitalist to mostly socialist. At one end of the continuum, we have societies characterized by a relatively free market, and at the other end we have those characterized by strict government regulation of the economy.   depicts the nations of the world along this continuum. Capitalist nations are found primarily in North America and Western Europe but also exist in other parts of the world.
    ::从资本主义到社会主义,各个社会都可以在连续体中排名。 在连续体的一端,我们的社会以相对自由的市场为特征,而在另一方面,我们的社会则以政府严格监管经济为特征。 描述世界各国沿着这一连续体。 资本主义国家主要在北美和西欧,但也存在于世界其他地区。

    Figure 13.1  Capitalism and Socialism Across the Globe
    ::图13.1 全球资本主义和社会主义

    Source: Adapted from The Heritage Foundation. (2010). Distribution of economic freedom. Retrieved from .
    ::资料来源:改编自传统基金会(2010年),《经济自由的分布》,取自《传统基金会》(2010年)。

    Socialism in Practice
    ::实践中的社会主义

    As with capitalism, the basic ideas behind socialism go far back in history. Plato, in ancient Greece, suggested a republic in which people shared their material goods. Early Christian communities believed in common ownership, as did the systems of monasteries set up by various religious orders. Many of the leaders of the French Revolution called for the abolition of all private property, not just the estates of the aristocracy they had overthrown. Thomas More's  Utopia , published in 1516, imagined a society with little private property and mandatory labor on a communal farm. Most experimental utopian communities had the abolition of private property as a founding principle.
    ::和资本主义一样,社会主义背后的基本思想早在历史上就已经存在了。 在古希腊,柏拉图(Plato)建议建立一个人民共享物质商品的共和国。早期基督教社区相信共同所有制,各种宗教教义建立的寺院体系也是如此。 许多法国革命领导人呼吁废除所有私有财产,而不仅仅是他们推翻的贵族统治的地产。 托马斯·莫尔(Thomas Moore)于1516年出版的乌托邦(Utopia)设想了一个几乎没有私有财产、在社区农场强制劳动的社会。 大多数实验型乌托邦社区将废除私有财产作为创始原则。

    Modern socialism really began as a reaction to the excesses of uncontrolled industrial capitalism in the 1800s and 1900s. The enormous wealth and lavish lifestyles enjoyed by owners contrasted sharply with the miserable conditions of the workers.
    ::现代社会主义的开始其实是对1800年代和1900年代不受控制的工业资本主义的过度反应。 拥有者享有的巨大财富和奢侈的生活方式与工人的悲惨条件形成鲜明对比。

    Some of the first great sociological thinkers studied the rise of socialism. Max Weber admired some aspects of socialism, especially its rationalism and how it could help social reform, but he worried that letting the government have complete control could result in an "iron cage of future bondage" (Greisman and Ritzer 1981).
    ::一些最伟大的社会学思想家研究社会主义的崛起。 Max Weber欣赏社会主义的某些方面,特别是其理性主义以及它如何帮助社会改革,但他担心让政府完全控制可能导致“未来奴役的铁笼 ” ( Greisan and Ritzer 1981 ) 。

    Pierre-Joseph Proudon (1809−1865) was another early socialist who thought socialism could be used to create utopian communities. In his 1840 book,  What Is Property? , he famously stated that “property is theft” (Proudon 1840). By this he meant that if an owner did not work to produce or earn the property, then the owner was stealing it from those who did. Proudon believed economies could work using a principle called  mutualism , under which individuals and cooperative groups would exchange products with one another on the basis of mutually satisfactory contracts (Proudon 1840).
    ::Pierre-Joseph Proudon(1809-1865年)是另一个早期社会主义者,他认为社会主义可以用来创建乌托邦社区。在他1840年的著作《财产是什么? ? 》中,他著名地指出,“财产是盗窃”(Proudon 1840年),这意味着,如果拥有者不生产或挣得财产,那么,拥有者就是从那些拥有者那里窃取财产。Proudon认为,经济可以使用一种称为相互主义的原则,即个人和合作团体根据相互满意的合同相互交换产品(Proudon 1840年)。

    By far the most important influential thinker on socialism was Karl Marx. Through his own writings and those with his collaborator, industrialist Friedrich Engels, Marx used a scientific analytical process to show that throughout history the resolution of class struggles caused changes in economies. He saw the relationships evolving from slave and owner, to serf and lord, to journeyman and master, to worker and owner. Neither Marx nor Engels thought socialism could be used to set up small utopian communities. Rather, they believed a socialist society would be created after workers rebelled against capitalistic owners and seized the means of production. They felt industrial capitalism was a necessary step that raised the level of production in society to a point it could progress to a socialist state (Marx and Engels 1848). These ideas formed the basis of the sociological perspective of social conflict theory.
    ::在社会主义方面,最重要的有影响力的思想家是卡尔·马克思。 马克思通过自己的著作和那些与他合作的人、工业家弗里德里希·安格斯(Friedrich Engels),利用科学分析过程表明,在整个历史历史过程中,阶级斗争的解决导致了经济的变化。他看到了从奴隶和所有者、奴隶和主人、旅行者和主人、工人和主人等关系的变化。马克思和恩格尔斯都认为,社会主义不能用来建立小型乌托邦社区。相反,他们认为,工人反抗资本所有者并夺取生产手段之后,将建立一个社会主义社会。他们认为,工业资本主义是提高社会生产水平的必要步骤,可以发展到社会主义国家(马克斯和恩格尔斯(1848年 ) 。 这些思想构成了社会冲突理论的社会学观点的基础。

    Comparing Capitalism and Socialism
    ::比较资本主义和社会主义

    People have debated the relative merits of capitalism and socialism at least since the time of Marx (Bowles, 2007; Cohen, 2009). Bowles, P. (2007).  Capitalism . New York, NY: Pearson/Longman; Cohen, G. A. (2009).  Why not socialism?  Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.  Compared to socialism, capitalism seems to have several advantages. It produces greater economic growth and productivity, at least in part because it provides more incentives (i.e., profit) for economic innovation. It also is often characterized by greater political freedom in the form of civil rights and liberties. As an economic system, capitalism seems to lend itself to personal freedom: because its hallmarks include the private ownership of the means of production and the individual pursuit of profit, there is much more emphasis in capitalist societies on the needs and desires of the individual and less emphasis on the need for government intervention in economic and social affairs.
    ::至少在马克思时代以来,人们就资本主义和社会主义的相对长处进行了辩论(Bowles,2007年;Cohen,2009年;Bowles,P.Bowles,2007年);资本主义,纽约:皮尔逊/隆曼;科恩,G.A.(2009)。为什么不是社会主义?普林斯顿,NJ:普林斯顿大学出版社。与社会主义相比,资本主义似乎有几个优势。它产生更大的经济增长和生产力,至少部分原因是它为经济创新提供了更多的激励(即利润),它也往往以公民权利和自由的形式表现出更大的政治自由。作为一个经济体系,资本主义似乎有利于个人自由:由于其标志包括生产手段的私人所有权和个人追求利润,资本主义社会更加强调个人的需要和愿望,而较少强调政府在经济和社会事务中进行干预的必要性。

    Yet capitalism also has its drawbacks. There is much more economic inequality in capitalism than in socialism. Although capitalism produces economic growth, not all segments of capitalism share this growth equally, and there is a much greater difference between the rich and poor than under socialism. People can become very rich in capitalist nations, but they can also remain quite poor.  S everal Western European nations that are more socialist than the United States have fewer extremes of wealth and poverty and take better care of their poor.
    ::但资本主义也有其缺点。 资本主义中的经济不平等比社会主义要多得多。 虽然资本主义产生经济增长,但并非所有资本主义部门都平等分享这种增长,贫富差距也比社会主义大得多。 资本主义国家中的人可以变得非常富有,但他们也可以仍然相当贫穷。 一些比美国更社会主义的西欧国家拥有更少的财富和贫穷并更好地照顾穷人。

    Another possible drawback depends on whether you prefer competition or cooperation.  I mportant values in the United States include competition and individualism, both of which arguably reflect this nation’s capitalist system. Children in the United States are raised with more of an individual orientation than children in socialist societies, who learn that the needs of their society are more important than the needs of the individual. Whereas U.S. children learn to compete with each other for good grades, success in sports, and other goals, children in socialist societies learn to cooperate to achieve tasks.
    ::另一个可能的缺点取决于你是否更喜欢竞争或合作。 美国的重要价值观包括竞争和个体主义,两者都可能反映美国的资本主义制度。 美国儿童比社会主义社会的儿童更多地以个人为取向而成长,他们知道他们的社会需求比个人需求更重要。 美国儿童学会相互竞争,争取好成绩、体育成功和其他目标,而社会主义社会的儿童则学会合作完成任务。

    More generally, capitalism is said by its critics to encourage selfish and even greedy behavior: if individuals try to maximize their profit, they do so at the expense of others. In competition, someone has to lose. A company’s ultimate aim, and one that is generally lauded, is to maximize its profits by driving another company out of the market altogether. If so, that company succeeds even if some other party is hurting. The small Mom-and-Pop grocery stores, drugstores, and hardware stores are almost a thing of the past, as big-box stores open their doors and drive their competition out of business. To its critics, then, capitalism encourages harmful behavior. Yet it is precisely this type of behavior that is taught in business schools.
    ::更笼统地说,资本主义的批评家们说资本主义鼓励自私甚至贪婪的行为:如果个人试图最大限度地增加利润,他们这样做以牺牲他人为代价。 在竞争中,某人必须输掉。 公司的最终目标 — — 以及普遍受到赞誉的目标 — — 是通过将另一家公司完全赶出市场来实现利润最大化。 如果是这样的话,即使另一家公司受到伤害,该公司也能成功。 小型百货商店、药店和硬件店几乎已经过时,因为大箱店打开了门,将竞争推向了商业。 那么,资本主义则会鼓励批评家们的有害行为。 然而,商业学校所教的正是这种类型的行为。

    Democratic Socialism
    ::民主社会主义

    Some nations combine elements of both capitalism and socialism and are called  social democracies , while their combination of capitalism and socialism is called  . In these nations, which include Denmark, Sweden, and several other Western European nations, the government owns several important industries, but much property remains in private hands, and political freedom is widespread. The government in these nations has extensive programs to help the poor and other people in need. Although these nations have high tax rates to help finance their social programs, their experience indicates it is very possible to combine the best features of capitalism and socialism while avoiding their faults.
    ::有些国家将资本主义和社会主义的要素结合在一起,并称之为社会民主,而资本主义和社会主义的结合被称为社会民主。 在这些国家,包括丹麦、瑞典和其他几个西欧国家,政府拥有若干重要的产业,但许多财产仍由私人掌握,政治自由也很普遍。 这些国家的政府拥有广泛的方案来帮助穷人和其他需要帮助的人。 尽管这些国家有高税率来帮助资助其社会方案,但是它们的经验表明,在避免其错误的同时,将资本主义和社会主义的最佳特征结合起来是非常可能的。

    The economies of Denmark, pictured here, and several other Western European nations feature a combination of capitalism and socialism that is called democratic socialism. In these economies, the government owns important industries, but private property and political freedom remain widespread.
    ::丹麦和其他几个西欧国家的经济表现为资本主义和社会主义的结合,这被称为民主社会主义。 在这些经济体中,政府拥有重要的产业,但私有财产和政治自由仍然很普遍。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商


    Learning From Other Societies
    ::从其他社会学会学习

    Social Democracy in Scandinavia
    ::斯堪的纳维亚的社会民主

    The five Scandinavian nations, also called the Nordic nations, are Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden. These nations differ in many ways, but they also share many similarities. In particular, they are all social democracies, as their governments own important industries while their citizens enjoy much political freedom. Each nation has the three branches of government with which most people are familiar—executive, judicial, and legislative—and each nation has a national parliament to which people are elected by proportional representation.
    ::五个斯堪的纳维亚国家,也称为北欧国家,是丹麦、芬兰、冰岛、挪威和瑞典,它们在许多方面各不相同,但也有许多相似之处,特别是它们都是社会民主,因为它们的政府拥有重要的产业,而公民则享有很大的政治自由,每个国家都有政府的三个分支,大多数人都熟悉这三个分支——行政、司法和立法——而且每个国家都有国家议会,人民通过比例代表制选举产生。

    Social democracies like the Scandinavian nations are often called controlled capitalist market economies. The word  controlled  here conveys the idea that their governments either own industries or heavily regulate industries they do not own. According to social scientist Tapio Lappi-Seppälä of Finland, a key feature of these social democracies’ economies is that inequality in wealth and income is not generally tolerated. Employers, employees, and political officials are accustomed to working closely to ensure that poverty and its related problems are addressed as much as possible and in as cooperative a manner as possible.
    ::像斯堪的纳维亚国家这样的社会民主国家常常被称为受控制的资本主义市场经济。 这里所控制的字眼传达的理念是他们的政府要么拥有自己的产业,要么严格监管他们并不拥有的产业。 根据芬兰的社会科学家Tapio Lappi-Seppälä,这些社会民主国家经济的一个关键特征是财富和收入不平等普遍不被容忍。 雇主、雇员和政治官员习惯于密切合作,以确保尽可能多地、尽可能合作地解决贫困及其相关问题。

    Underlying this so-called  social welfare model  is a commitment to  universalism . All citizens, regardless of their socioeconomic status or family situation, receive various services, such as child care and universal health care, that are free or heavily subsidized. To support this massive provision of benefits, the Scandinavian nations have very high taxes that their citizens generally accept as normal and necessary.
    ::这种所谓的社会福利模式的基础是对普世主义的承诺。 所有公民,不论其社会经济地位或家庭状况如何,都得到各种免费或大量补贴的服务,如儿童保育和普遍保健。 为了支持这种大规模福利的提供,斯堪的纳维亚各国征收非常高的税收,其公民一般认为这些税收是正常和必要的。

    This model has been praised by political scientist Torben Iversen, who lauds its goal of achieving full employment and equality. This attempt has not been entirely free of difficulties but overall has been very successful, as the Scandinavian nations rank at or near the top in international comparisons of health, education, economic well-being, and other measures of quality of life. The Scandinavian experience of social democracy teaches us that it is very possible to have a political and economic model that combines the best features of capitalism and socialism while retaining the political freedom that citizens expect in a democracy. (Berman, 2006; Iversen, 1998; Lappi-Seppälä, 2007) Berman, S. (2006).  The primacy of politics: Social democracy and the making of Europe’s twentieth century . New York, NY: Cambridge University Press; Iversen, T. (1998). The choices for Scandinavian social democracy in comparative perspective.  Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 14 , 59–75; Lappi-Seppälä, T. (2007). Penal policy in Scandinavia.  Crime and Justice, 36 , 217–296.
    ::这一模式得到了政治学家托尔本·伊韦森的赞扬,他称赞了实现充分就业和平等的目标。 这一尝试并非完全没有困难,但总体上非常成功,因为斯堪的纳维亚国家在卫生、教育、经济福祉和其他生活质量衡量方面的国际比较中位居于或接近于前列。 斯堪的纳维亚社会民主的经验告诉我们,拥有一种结合资本主义和社会主义的最佳特征的政治和经济模式,同时保留公民在民主中所期望的政治自由是非常可能的。 (伯曼,2006年;伊韦登,1998年;拉皮皮-塞佩拉,2007年),伯曼,S.(2006年)政治至上:社会民主和20世纪欧洲的制造。纽约:剑桥大学出版社;伊华登(1998年)。从比较角度看斯堪的斯堪的纳维亚社会民主的选择。 牛津经济政策评论,14,59-75;拉皮-塞普阿拉,T.(2007年)。斯堪的斯堪的斯堪的纳维亚刑法政策,36,217-296。


    Capitalism vs Socialism  Video 
    ::资本主义与社会主义

    The United States Economy
    ::美国经济


    Rise of Corporate Capitalism
    ::公司资本主义兴起

    One of the most important but controversial features of modern capitalism is the  , a formal organization that has a legal existence, including the right to sign contracts, that is separate from that of its members.
    ::现代资本主义最重要但有争议的一个特征是,它是一个正式的组织,具有合法存在,包括签署合同的权利,与其成员不同。

    Adam Smith, the founder of capitalism, envisioned that individuals would own the means of production and compete for profit, and this is the model the United States followed in its early stage of industrialization. After the Civil War, however, corporations quickly replaced individuals and their families as the owners of the means of production and as the competitors for profit. As corporations grew following the Civil War, they quickly tried to control their markets by, for example, buying up competitors and driving others out of business. To do so, they engaged in bribery, kickbacks, and complex financial schemes of dubious ethics. They also established factories and other workplaces with squalid conditions. Their shady financial practices won their chief executives the name “robber barons” and led the federal government to pass the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 designed to prohibit restraint of trade that raised prices (Hillstrom & Hillstrom, 2005). Hillstrom, K., & Hillstrom, L. C. (Eds.). (2005).  The Industrial Revolution in America . Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
    ::资本主义的创始人史密斯(Smith)设想个人将拥有生产手段并竞争利润,这是美国在工业化早期阶段所遵循的模式。 但是,内战后,公司迅速取代个人及其家庭成为生产手段的拥有者和营利竞争者。随着内战后公司的增长,他们迅速试图通过购买竞争者、将他人赶出生意等手段控制自己的市场。为了这样做,他们从事贿赂、回扣和可疑道德的复杂金融计划。他们还建立了工厂和其他条件恶劣的工作场所。他们的恶毒金融做法赢得了他们的首席执行官的“盗贼巴伦 ” , 并导致联邦政府通过了1890年《谢尔曼反托拉斯法》,旨在禁止限制提高价格的贸易(Hillstrom & Hillstrom, 2005 Hillstrom, K. & Hillstrom, L. C. (Eds.) (2005年)。美国工业革命,Santa Barbara, CA:ABC-CLIO。

    Corporations such as Exxon dominate the U.S. economy. They employ thousands of workers, and their assets total many trillions of dollars.
    ::诸如埃克森等公司在美国经济中占主导地位,它们雇用了数千名工人,其资产总额达数万亿美元。

    Source: Photo courtesy of David Shankbone .
    ::照片来自David Shankbone。


    More than a century later, corporations have increased in both number and size. Although several million U.S. corporations exist, most are fairly small. Each of the largest 500, however, has an annual revenue exceeding $4.6 billion (2008 data) and employs thousands of workers. Their total assets run into the trillions of dollars (Wiley, 2009). Wiley, H. (2009). Welcome to the 2009  Fortune  500.  Fortune, 159 (9), 14.  It is no exaggeration to say they control the nation’s economy, as together they produce most of the U.S. private sector output, employ millions of people, and have revenues equal to most of the U.S. gross domestic product. In many ways, the size and influence of corporations stifle the competition that is one of the hallmarks of capitalism. A consequence of corporate capitalism is the emergence of oligarchies.  An oligarchy is when in a market situation a few large companies control an industry.  For example, several markets, including that for breakfast cereals, auto makers, and oil are controlled by four or fewer corporations. This control reduces competition because it reduces the number of products and competitors, and it thus raises prices to the public (Parenti, 2007). Parenti, M. (2007).  Democracy for the few  (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
    ::一个多世纪后,一个多世纪后,公司的数量和规模都有了增长。尽管有数百万美国公司存在,但大多数公司都相当小。但最大的500家公司中,每个公司年收入都超过46亿美元(2008年数据 ) , 雇用了数千名工人。其资产总额高达数万亿美元(Wiley, 2009 Wiley, H. (2009) ) , 欢迎来到2009 Fortunune 500。 Fortune, 159(9), 14. 说它们控制国家经济并不夸张,因为它们共同生产了大部分美国私营部门产出,雇用了数百万人,收入相当于美国大部分国内生产总值。 在许多方面,公司的规模和影响抑制了作为资本主义标志之一的竞争。 公司资本主义的后果是出现寡头。 寡头是少数大公司控制一个产业。 比如,几个市场,包括早餐谷物、汽车制造商和石油由四家或更少的公司控制。 这种控制会减少竞争,因为它减少了产品和竞争者的数量,而Bel Rentral (2007年) 。

    The last few decades have seen the proliferation and rise of the  , a corporation with headquarters in one nation but with factories and other operations in many other nations (Wettstein, 2009). Wettstein, F. (2009).  Multinational corporations and global justice: Human rights obligations of a quasi-governmental institution . Stanford, CA: Stanford Business Books.  Multinational corporations centered in the United States and their foreign affiliates have more than $18 trillion in assets and employ more than 32 million people (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). U.S. Census Bureau. (2010).  Statistical abstract of the United States: 2010 . Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from   The assets of the largest multinational corporations exceed those of many of the world’s nations. Often their foreign operations are in poor nations, whose low wages make them attractive sites for multinational corporation expansion. Many multinational employees in these nations work in sweatshops at very low pay and amid substandard living conditions. Dependency theorists, say that multinationals not only mistreat workers in poor nations but also exploit these nations’ natural resources. In contrast, modernization theorists , say that multinationals are bringing jobs to developing nations and helping them achieve economic growth. As this debate illustrates, the dominance of multinational corporations will certainly continue to spark controversy.
    ::在过去几十年中,一家总部设在一个国家但拥有工厂和许多其他国家的其他业务的公司,即一家总部设在一个国家的公司,其规模和崛起(Wettstein, 2009/Wettstein, F.2009. 2009)。多国公司和全球司法:准政府机构的人权义务。斯坦福, CA:斯坦福商业书籍。以美国为核心的多国公司及其外国附属公司拥有18万多亿美元的资产,雇用了3 200多万人(美国人口普查局,2010年)。美国统计摘要:2010年,华盛顿:美国政府印刷办公室。从最大的多国公司的资产中回收的超过世界许多国家的资产。它们的外国业务往往在穷国,其低工资使它们有吸引力,成为跨国公司扩张的场所。这些国家许多多国雇员在血汗工厂工作,工资非常低,生活条件极低。依赖论者说,跨国公司不仅在贫穷国家误差工人,而且还在利用这些国家的自然资源。相比之下,现代化的理论家们说,跨国公司的竞争力正在继续给它们带来增长。

    Another controversial aspect of corporations is the white-collar crime in which they engage (Rosoff, Pontell, & Tillman, 2010). Rosoff, S. M., Pontell, H. N., & Tillman, R. (2010).  Profit without honor: White collar crime and the looting of America  (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.  P rice fixing by corporations costs the U.S. public some $60 billion annually (Simon, 2008). Simon, D. R. (2008).  Elite deviance  (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.  Workplace-related illnesses and injuries that could have been prevented if companies obeyed federal regulations kill about 50,000 workers each year (AFL-CIO, 2007). AFL-CIO. (2007).  Death on the job: The toll of neglect . Washington, DC: Author.  An estimated 10,000 U.S. residents die annually from dangerous products. All in all, corporate lawbreaking and neglect probably result in more than 100,000 deaths annually and cost the public more than $400 billion (Barkan, 2012). Barkan, S. E. (2012).  Criminology: A sociological understanding  (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
    ::公司的另一个有争议的方面是它们从事的白领犯罪(Rosoff, Pontell, & Tillman, 2010年)。Rosoff, S.M., Pontell, H.N., & Tillman, R. (2010年)。 利润无荣誉:白领犯罪和对美国的抢劫(第5版),上萨德尔河,NJ: Prentice Hall。 公司定价每年花费美国公众约600亿美元(西蒙, 2008年)。Simon, D.R.(2008年)。 Elite deviance (第9版)。波士顿,MA:Allyn & Bacon。如果公司遵守联邦法规,工作场所相关的疾病和伤害本来是可以防止的(联邦法规,2007年)。 上萨德尔河公司(2007年)。 工作死亡:忽视的死亡人数。 华盛顿特区:估计有10,000个美国居民每年死于危险产品。 在所有情况中,公司违法和忽视可能每年造成100 000多人死亡,并造成超过400亿公众的损失(巴德勒河公司,2012年,2012年) 上巴德·萨德罗德学会(2012年)。

    In sum, corporations are the dominant actors in today’s economy. They provide most of our products and many of our services and employ millions of people. It is impossible to imagine a modern industrial system without corporations. Yet they often stifle competition, break the law, and, according to their critics, exploit people and natural resources in developing nations. The BP oil spill in 2010 reminds us of the damage corporations can cause. BP’s disaster was the possible result, according to news reports, of many violations of federal safety standards for oil drilling (Uhlmann, 2010). Uhlmann, D. M. (2010, June 4). Prosecuting crimes against the earth.  The New York Times , p. A27.
    ::总而言之,公司是当今经济的主导角色,它们提供我们的大部分产品和许多服务,并雇用数百万人。 无法想象没有公司就建立现代工业体系。 然而,它们常常扼杀竞争,违法,而且根据批评者的说法,它们开发发展中国家人民和自然资源。 2010年英国石油公司的石油泄漏提醒我们公司可能造成的破坏。 根据新闻报道,英国石油公司的灾难是许多违反联邦石油钻探安全标准(Uhlmann,2010年)。 Uhlmann, D.M.(2010年,6月4日 ) , 起诉针对地球的犯罪。《纽约时报》,第A27页。


    Recent Trends in Jobs and Wages
    ::近期就业和工资趋势

    The United States has joined other industrial nations in moving into postindustrial economies. If physical prowess and skill with one’s hands were prerequisites for many industrial jobs, mental prowess and communication skills are prerequisites for postindustrial jobs.
    ::美国与其他工业国家一起进入后工业经济体。 如果身体力行和掌握自己的手技能是许多工业工作的先决条件,那么精神力和沟通技能则是后工业工作的先决条件。

    This move to a postindustrial economy has been a mixed blessing for many Americans. The information age has obvious benefits too numerous to mention, but there has also been a cost to the many workers whom postindustrialization and the globalization of the economy have left behind. Since the 1980s many manufacturing companies moved their plants from U.S. cities to sites in the developing world in Asia and elsewhere, a problem called  . This shift has helped fuel a loss of more than 1.5 million manufacturing jobs in the United States (Mishel, Bernstein, & Shierholz, 2009). Mishel, L., Bernstein, J., & Shierholz, H. (2009).  The state of working America 2008/2009 . Ithaca, NY: ILR Press [An imprint of Cornell University Press].
    ::对许多美国人来说,这一向后工业化经济的转变是喜忧参半的。信息时代显然带来太多好处,无法一一提及,但是,后工业化和经济全球化遗留下来的许多工人也付出了代价。自1980年代以来,许多制造业公司将其工厂从美国城市迁往亚洲和其他地方的发展中世界,这是一个被称为“问题”的问题。这一转变帮助美国损失了150多万个制造业工作岗位(Mishel、Bernstein、和Shierholz,2009年)。Mishel、L.、Bernstein、J.、和Shierholz、H.(2009年)。美国2008/2009年,Ithaca,纽约:ILR Press[Cornell大学出版社印 。

    Wage changes in recent years also depend on what social class someone is in. While the average compensation of chief executive officers (CEOs) of large corporations grew by 167% from 1989 to 2007, the average compensation of the typical worker grew by only 10%. Another way of understanding this disparity is perhaps more striking. In 1965, CEOs earned 24 times more than the typical worker; in 2007 they earned 275 times more than the typical worker (Mishel, Bernstein, & Shierholz, 2009). Mishel, L., Bernstein, J., & Shierholz, H. (2009).  The state of working America 2008/2009 . Ithaca, NY: ILR Press [An imprint of Cornell University Press].
    ::最近几年的工资变化也取决于某个人所处的社会阶层。虽然大公司首席执行官(CEO)的平均报酬从1989年至2007年增长了167 % , 但典型工人的平均报酬仅增长了10 % 。 另一种理解这种差距的方法也许更加惊人。1965年,CEO的收入比典型工人多24倍;2007年,他们的收入比典型工人(Milshel、Bernstein、和Shierholz,2009年)多275倍(Mishel、L.、Bernstein、J.、和Shierholz,H.(2009年)。美国工作州2008/2009年。Ithaca,纽约:ILR Press[康奈尔大学出版社印 。


    The U.S. Labor Force
    ::美国劳动大军

    The   consists of all noninstitutionalized civilians 16 years of age or older who work for pay or are looking for work. The civilian labor force (hereafter  labor force ) consists of about 154 million people, or almost two-thirds of the population, including about 72% of men and 59% of women (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2009). Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2009).  Employment and earnings online . Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved from     noted that women’s labor force participation soared during the last few decades. This general increase is even steeper for married women with children under 6 years of age: in 2007 almost 62% of such women were in the labor force, compared to less than 19% in 1960 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010), U.S. Census Bureau. (2009).  Statistical abstract of the United States: 2009 . Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from   a threefold difference (see ).
    ::16岁或16岁以上从事有薪工作或寻找工作的非机构化平民构成。民事劳动力(以下简称劳动力)由大约1.54亿人组成,几乎占总人口的三分之二,包括大约72%的男性和59%的女性(劳动统计局,2009年)。《劳工统计局》(2009年)。《就业和收入在线》。华盛顿:劳动统计局,美国劳工部。回顾指出,在过去几十年中,女性劳动力参与率猛增。对于有6岁以下子女的已婚妇女来说,这一总体增长幅度甚至更为显著:2007年,这类妇女中几乎有62%在劳动力队伍中,而1960年(美国人口普查局,2010年)不到19 % 。美国人口普查局(2009年),美国统计摘要:2009年,华盛顿特区:美国政府印刷局。从三个差异中推退了出来(参见 ) 。

    Figure 13.2  Labor Force Participation Rate, Percentage of Married Women with Children Younger Than 6 Years of Age, 1960–2007
    ::图13.2 1960-2007年劳动力参与率、有6岁及6岁以下子女已婚妇女的百分比

    Source: Data from U.S. Census Bureau. (2010).  Statistical abstract of the United States: 2010 . Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from  .
    ::资料来源:美国人口普查局数据(2010年),《美国统计摘要:2010年》,华盛顿特区:美国政府印刷局。


    Unemployment
    ::失业失业

    Unemployment is a fact of life. There will always be people laid off or fired, who voluntarily quit their jobs, or who just graduated school and are still looking for work. But most unemployed people are involuntarily unemployed, and for them the financial and psychological consequences can be devastating.
    ::失业是生活中的现实。 总会有人被解雇或被解雇,有人自愿辞去工作,有人刚毕业,还有人仍在寻找工作。 但大多数失业人员都是非自愿失业,对他们来说,经济和心理后果可能是灾难性的。

    Unemployment rates rise and fall with the economy, and the national unemployment rate was as high as 10.2% in October 2009 amid the Great Recession that began almost two years earlier; it was still 9.8% in November 2010, amounting to some 15.1 million people. But whether unemployment is high or low, it always varies by race and ethnicity, with African American and Latino unemployment rates higher than the white rate (see  ). Unemployment is also higher for younger people than for older people. In June 2010, 25.7% of all teenagers in the labor force (aged 16–19) were unemployed, a figure almost three times higher than that for adults. The unemployment rate for African Americans in this age group was a very high 39.9%, considerably greater than the 23.2% figure for whites in this age group (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2010).  Employment and earnings online . Washington, DC: Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Retrieved from
    ::2009年10月,在近两年前开始的大衰退期间,全国失业率高达10.2 % , 2009年10月,失业率高达10.2 % ; 2010年11月,失业率仍为9.8 % , 约1 510万人。 但无论失业率高低,都因种族和族裔而异,非洲和拉丁美洲的失业率也高于白人(见);年轻人的失业率也高于老年人。 2010年6月,劳动力队伍中25.7%的青少年(16-19岁)失业,比成年人高出近三倍。 这个年龄组的非裔美国人失业率非常高39.9%,大大高于白人这一年龄组的23.2%(劳工统计局,2010年)。劳工统计局(2010年)。就业和收入在线。华盛顿:劳工统计局,美国劳工部。

     Race, Ethnicity, and Unemployment Rate, June 2010
    ::种族、族裔和失业率,2010年6月

    Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010). Employment & earnings online. Retrieved from .
    ::资料来源:劳工统计局(2010年),在线就业和收入,从中检索。


    Unemployment figures are misleading in an important respect, as they do not include people who are underemployed . Underemployment includes unemployed and also two other types of people: (a) those who are working part time but who want to work full time and (b) those who have stopped looking for work because they have not been able to find a job. Many economists think that underemployment provides a more accurate measure than unemployment of the number of people with employment problems. For example, in June 2010, when the unemployment rate was 9.5% and 14.6 million people were officially unemployed, the underemployment rate was 16.5%, equal to more than 25 million people. Reflecting the racial/ethnic disparity in unemployment, 23.2% of Latino workers and 23.5% of African American workers were underemployed, compared to only 13.8% of white workers (Economic Policy Institute, 2010). Economic Policy Institute. (2010). Economy track. Retrieved from   Reflecting on the great amount of underemployment during the Great Recession, one economist commented, “When you combine the long-term unemployed with those who are dropping out and those who are working part time because they can’t find anything else, it is just far beyond anything we’ve seen in the job market since the 1930s” (Herbert 2010, p. A25). Herbert, B. (2010, August 10). The horror show.  The New York Times , p. A25.
    ::失业数字在一个重要的方面是误导性的,因为失业数字不包括未充分就业的人。 失业人数不包括失业人员。 失业人数包括失业人员和其他两类人sada) 非全时工作但希望全职工作的人,以及(b) 因找不到工作而停止寻找工作的人。许多经济学家认为,就业不足比失业人数提供了比有就业问题的人数更准确的衡量标准。 例如,2010年6月,失业率为9.5%和1 460万人的官方失业,就业不足率为16.5%,相当于2 500多万人。 反映失业中的种族/族裔差距,拉丁美洲工人的23.2%和非洲裔美国人的23.5%,而白人工人只有13.8%的就业不足(经济政策研究所,2010年)。 经济政策研究所(2010年)。从反思大萧条期间大量就业不足的情况中了解到,一位经济学家评论道 , “当你将长期失业与那些正在辍学的人和那些因为找不到其他原因而正在从事部分工作的人结合起来时,2010年8月B号时,我们看到的是恐怖的“2010年8月B号时报”,任何情况都表明“2010年8月20日之后的恐怖”。

    Unemployment rises when the economy falters and that race and ethnicity affect the probability of being unemployed. These two facts provide evidence supporting the  sociological imagination . As C. Wright Mills (1959) Mills, C. W. (1959).  The sociological imagination . London, England: Oxford University Press.  emphasized in his original discussion of this concept, unemployment is best viewed more as a public issue than as a personal trouble. When so many people are unemployed during an economic recession and when there is such striking evidence of higher unemployment rates among the persons of color who have the least opportunity for the education and training needed to obtain and keep a job, it is evident that high unemployment rates reflect a public issue rather than just a collection of public troubles. 
    ::当经济不景气,种族和族裔影响失业的可能性时失业就会上升,这两个事实为社会想象提供了证据,如C.Wright Mills(1959年),C.W.(1959年),C.Mills(1959年),C.W.(1959年)。 社会想象力,伦敦,英国:牛津大学出版社(Oxford University Press)在最初讨论这一概念时强调,失业问题最好被视为公共问题,而不是个人问题。当许多人在经济衰退期间失业,而且有如此惊人的证据表明,在最没有机会获得和保持工作所需的教育和培训的肤色者中失业率较高时,显然高失业率反映的是公共问题,而不仅仅是一系列公共问题。