14.1 教育的社会学
Section outline
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Objectives
::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标Explain the different views held by functionalist, conflict, and interactionist sociologist with regards to education.
::解释功能论者、冲突和互动论社会学家对教育持有的不同观点。Describe some of the issues affecting American education system.
::描述影响美国教育制度的一些问题。
Universal Generalizations
::普遍化Every society has developed a system education to ensure its new members become functioning members of society.
::每个社会都发展了系统教育,以确保其新成员成为社会正常运转的成员。The basic function of education is to teach children the knowledge and skills they will need in the world.
::教育的基本功能是向儿童传授他们在世界上需要的知识和技能。For societies to survive, they must transmit the core values of their culture to the following generations.
::社会要想生存,就必须将其文化的核心价值传给后代。Education is used throughout societies to socialize their young to support their communities’ own social and political systems.
::整个社会都利用教育使他们的青年社会化,以支持其社区自己的社会和政治制度。Schools help to teach socially acceptable forms of behavior.
::学校帮助教授社会可接受的行为形式。All societies must have some system for identifying and training he young people who will do the important work of society in the future.
::所有社会都必须建立某种制度,确定和培训今后将从事社会重要工作的年轻人。Most Americans believe education is the key to social mobility and possible economic success.
::大多数美国人认为教育是社会流动性和可能的经济成功的关键。Since the foundation of the United States, education has been highly valued.
::自美国成立以来,教育一直受到高度重视。
Guiding Questions
::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问How do we learn what it means to be an American?
::我们如何学会当美国人意味着什么?What is the purpose of education?
::教育的目的是什么?How does education influence society?
::教育如何影响社会?What is the difference between formal and informal education?
::正规和非正规教育有什么区别?What is the functionalist view on education?
::关于教育的机能主义观点是什么?What is the conflict perspective on education?
::教育方面的冲突观点是什么?How do sociologists view education using the interactionist view?
::社会学家如何用互动观点看待教育?THE SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION
::教育学会
Schools teach us far more than reading, writing, and arithmetic. They also socialize us to cultural norms and expectations. (Photo courtesy of Editor B/flickr)
::学校不仅教我们阅读、写作和算术,还让我们了解文化规范和期望。 (编辑B/flickr的Photo礼节)
From the moment a child is born, his or her education begins. At first, education is an informal process in which an infant watches others and imitates them. As the infant grows into a young child, the process of education becomes more formal through play dates and preschool. Once in grade school, academic lessons become the focus of education as a child moves through the school system. But even then, education is about much more than the simple learning of facts.
::从孩子出生起,就开始接受教育,首先,教育是一个非正式过程,婴儿在其中监视他人并模仿他们,随着婴儿成长为幼儿,通过游戏日期和学前班,教育过程就变得更加正规,一旦进入小学,学术课程就成为教育的重点,因为儿童通过学校系统。但即使这样,教育也远不只是简单的了解事实。Our education system also socializes us to our society. We learn cultural expectations and norms, which are reinforced by our teachers, our textbooks, and our classmates. (For students outside the dominant culture, this aspect of the education system can pose significant challenges.) You might remember learning your multiplication tables in second grade and also learning the social rules of taking turns on the swings at recess. You might recall learning about the U.S. Constitution in an American Government course as well as learning when and how to speak up in class.
::我们的教育制度也使我们的社会社会化。我们学习了文化期望和规范,而我们的教师、教科书和同学则加强了这些期望和规范。 (对于主流文化以外的学生,教育系统的这一方面可能带来重大挑战。 )你也许记得二年级的乘数表,也记得休课时轮回社会规则。你也许记得在美国政府课程中学习《美国宪法》,以及在课堂上学习何时和如何说话。Schools also can be agents of change, teaching individuals to think outside of the family norms into which they were born. Educational environments can broaden horizons and even help to break cycles of poverty and racism.
::教育环境可以拓宽视野,甚至有助于打破贫穷和种族主义的循环。Of course, America’s schools are often criticized—for not producing desired test results, or for letting certain kids slip through the cracks. In all, sociologists understand education to be both a social problem and a social solution.
::当然,美国学校经常受到批评 — — 因为没有产生预期的测试结果,或者因为让某些孩子从裂缝中溜走。 归根结底,社会学家认为教育既是一个社会问题,也是一个社会解决方案。
Education in the United States
::美国的教育is the social institution through which a society teaches its members the skills, knowledge, norms, and values they need to learn to become good, productive members of their society. As this definition makes clear, education is an important part of socialization. Education is both formal and informal . is often referred to as schooling , and as this term implies, it occurs in schools under teachers, principals, and other specially trained professionals. may occur almost anywhere, but for young children it has traditionally occurred primarily in the home, with their parents as their instructors. Day care has become an increasingly popular venue in industrial societies for young children’s instruction, and education from the early years of life is thus more formal than it used to be.
::教育是指正规和非正规教育。 教育通常被称为学校教育,正如这一术语所暗示的那样,在教师、校长和其他受过专门训练的专业人员领导下的学校里,教育可能几乎发生于任何地方,但对于幼儿来说,它历来主要发生在家中,父母是教师。 日托已成为工业社会越来越流行的幼儿教育场所,因此从幼年起教育就比以往更加正规。The major sociological perspectives on education fall nicely into the functional, conflict, and symbolic interactionist approaches (Ballantine & Hammack, 2009). Ballantine, J. H., & Hammack, F. M. (2009). The sociology of education: A systematic analysis (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. summarizes what these approaches say.
::教育的主要社会学观点很好地体现在功能、冲突和象征性互动主义方法中(Ballantine & Hammack, 2009年);Ballantine, J.H., & Hammack, F.M.(2009)。 教育的社会学:系统分析(第6版)。 上萨德尔河,NJ: Prentice Hall。 概括了这些方法的内容。
Table 14.1 Theory Snapshot
::表14.1 理论截图Theoretical perspective Major assumptions Functionalism Education serves several functions for society. These include (a) socialization, (b) social integration, (c) social placement, and (d) social and cultural innovation. Latent functions include child care, the establishment of peer relationships, and lowering unemployment by keeping high school students out of the full-time labor force. Conflict theory Education promotes social inequality through the use of tracking and standardized testing and the impact of its “hidden curriculum.” Schools differ widely in their funding and learning conditions, and this type of inequality leads to learning disparities that reinforce social inequality. Symbolic interactionism This perspective focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on the playground, and in other school venues. Specific research finds that social interaction in schools affects the development of gender roles and that teachers’ expectations of pupils’ intellectual abilities affect how much pupils learn. The Functions of Education
::教育职能Functional theory stresses the functions that education serves in fulfilling a society’s various needs. Perhaps the most important function of education is socialization . If children need to learn the norms, values, and skills they need to function in society, then education is a primary vehicle for such learning. Schools teach the three Rs, as we all know, but they also teach many of the society’s norms and values. In the United States, these norms and values include respect for authority, patriotism (remember the Pledge of Allegiance?), punctuality, individualism, and competition. Regarding these last two values, American students from an early age compete as individuals over grades and other rewards.
::功能理论强调了教育在满足社会各种需求方面起到的作用。 也许教育最重要的功能是社会化。 如果儿童需要学习他们在社会上发挥作用所需要的规范、价值观和技能,那么教育就是这种学习的主要工具。 众所周知,学校教授三个R,但也教授社会的许多规范和价值观。 在美国,这些规范和价值观包括尊重权威、爱国主义(记住“爱心承诺 ” ) 、 守时、个人主义和竞争。 关于最后两个价值观,美国学生从小就作为个人争夺年级和其他奖励。A second function of education is social integration . For a society to work, functionalists say, people must subscribe to a common set of beliefs and values. As we saw, the development of such common views was a goal of the system of free, compulsory education that developed in the 19th century. Thousands of immigrant children in the United States today are learning English, U.S. history, and other subjects that help prepare them for the workforce and integrate them into American life. Such integration is a major goal of the English-only movement, whose advocates say that only English should be used to teach children whose native tongue is Spanish, Vietnamese, or whatever other language their parents speak at home. Critics of this movement say it slows down these children’s education and weakens their ethnic identity (Schildkraut, 2005). Schildkraut, D. J. (2005). Press “one” for English: Language policy, public opinion, and American identity . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
::教育的第二个功能是社会一体化。 功能论者说,要使社会发挥作用,人们必须认同一套共同的信仰和价值观。 正如我们看到的那样,这种共同观点的发展是19世纪发展起来的免费义务教育制度的目标。 今天,美国数以千计的移民儿童正在学习英语、美国历史和其他帮助他们准备加入劳动力队伍和融入美国生活的主题。这种融合是只有英语运动的一个主要目标,该运动的倡导者说,只有英语才应该用来教育母语为西班牙语、越南语或他们父母在家里讲的其他语言的儿童。 运动的批评者说,它减缓了这些儿童的教育,削弱了他们的民族特性(Schildkraut, 2005年)。Schildkraut, D.J.(2005年)。 为英语出版“一”一:语言政策、公众舆论和美国身份。普林斯顿,NJ:普林斯顿大学出版社。A third function of education is social placement . Beginning in grade school, students are identified by teachers and other school officials either as bright and motivated or as less bright and even educationally challenged. Depending on how they are identified, children are taught at the level that is thought to suit them best. In this way they are prepared in the most appropriate way possible for their later station in life. Whether this process works as well as it should is an important issue, and we explore it further when we discuss school tracking shortly.
::教育的第三个功能是社会安置。从小学开始,教师和其他学校官员就把学生确定为明亮、积极性低、甚至教育挑战程度低的学生。根据如何识别,儿童在被认为最适合他们的水平上接受教育。这样,他们就以尽可能最适当的方式为以后的学习阶段做好准备。这一过程是否有效以及是否应该是一个重要问题。当我们很快讨论学校跟踪问题时,我们进一步探讨这个问题。Social and cultural innovation is a fourth function of education. Our scientists cannot make important scientific discoveries and our artists and thinkers cannot come up with great works of art, poetry, and prose unless they have first been educated in the many subjects they need to know for their chosen path.
::社会和文化创新是教育的第四个功能。 我们的科学家无法做出重要的科学发现,我们的艺术家和思想家也无法拿出伟大的艺术作品、诗歌和诗歌,除非他们首先在他们选择的道路需要知道的许多科目上接受教育。
Figure 14.1 The Functions of Education
::图14.1 教育职能
Schools ideally perform many important functions in modern society. These include socialization, social integration, social placement, and social and cultural innovation
::学校在现代社会中发挥许多重要功能,最理想,包括社会化、社会融合、社会安置、社会和文化创新。
The Functionalist Perspective on Education
Functionalists view education as one of the more important social institutions in a society. They contend that education contributes two kinds of functions: manifest (or primary) functions, which are the intended and visible functions of education; and latent (or secondary) functions, which are the hidden and unintended functions.
::功能论者认为教育是社会上较重要的社会机构之一,认为教育具有两种功能:表现(或初级)功能,即教育的本意和可见功能;潜在(或中级)功能,即隐藏和意外功能。
Manifest Functions
::功能There are several major manifest functions associated with education. The first is socialization. Beginning in preschool and kindergarten, students are taught to practice various societal roles. The French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who established the academic discipline of sociology, characterized schools as “socialization agencies that teach children how to get along with others and prepare them for adult economic roles” (Durkheim 1898). Indeed, it seems that schools have taken on this responsibility in full.
::首先,社会化。 从学龄前和幼儿园开始,学生们就学会扮演各种社会角色。 法国社会学家Edmile Durkheim(1858-1917年)建立了社会学的学术学科,他将学校定性为“教育儿童如何与他人相处并使他们为成年经济角色做好准备的社会化机构 ” ( Durkheim 1898年 ) 。 事实上,学校似乎已经完全承担了这一责任。This socialization also involves learning the rules and norms of the society as a whole. In the early days of compulsory education, students learned the dominant culture. Today, since the culture of the United States is increasingly diverse, students may learn a variety of cultural norms, not only that of the dominant culture.
::这种社会化还涉及到学习整个社会的规则和规范,在义务教育初期,学生学习主流文化,如今,由于美国文化日益多样化,学生可以学习各种文化规范,而不仅仅是主流文化的文化规范。School systems in the United States also transmit the core values of the nation through manifest functions like social control. One of the roles of schools is to teach students conformity to law and respect for authority. Obviously, such respect, given to teachers and administrators, will help a student navigate the school environment. This function also prepares students to enter the workplace and the world at large, where they will continue to be subject to people who have authority over them. Fulfillment of this function rests primarily with classroom teachers and instructors who are with students all day.
::美国的学校系统也通过社会控制等明显功能传播国家的核心价值观,学校的作用之一是教育学生遵守法律和尊重权威,显然,对教师和行政人员的这种尊重将有助于学生掌握学校环境,也使学生能够进入工作场所和全世界,继续接受对他们有权力的人的管辖,履行这一职能主要取决于课堂教师和教员,他们整天与学生在一起。
The teacher’s authority in the classroom is a way in which education fulfills the manifest functions of social control. (Photo courtesy of Tulane Public Relations/flickr)
::教师在课堂上的权威是教育履行社会控制明显功能的一种方式。 (图兰公共关系/Flickr的Photo礼仪)
Education also provides one of the major methods used by people for upward social mobility. This function is referred to as social placement . College and graduate schools are viewed as vehicles for moving students closer to the careers that will give them the financial freedom and security they seek. As a result, college students are often more motivated to study areas that they believe will be advantageous on the social ladder. A student might value business courses over a class in Victorian poetry because she sees business class as a stronger vehicle for financial success.
::教育也提供了人们提高社会流动性的主要方法之一,这一功能被称为社会安置,将学院和研究生学校视为使学生更接近于他们所寻求的经济自由和保障的职业的工具,因此,大学生往往更愿意学习他们认为在社会阶梯上有利可图的领域。 学生可能把商业课程放在维多利亚诗班之上,因为她认为商业课是经济成功的有力工具。
Latent Functions
::后端函数Education also fulfills latent functions. As you well know, much goes on in a school that has little to do with formal education. For example, you might notice an attractive fellow student when he gives a particularly interesting answer in class—catching up with him and making a date speaks to the latent function of courtship fulfilled by exposure to a peer group in the educational setting.
::教育也具有潜在的功能。 众所周知,很多事情发生在一个与正规教育无关的学校。 比如,当一个有吸引力的同龄学生在课堂追逐时给出一个特别有趣的答案,并设定一个日期,说明通过在教育环境中接触同龄人群体而实现求偶的潜在功能时,你可能会注意到他是一个有吸引力的同龄学生。The educational setting introduces students to social networks that might last for years and can help people find jobs after their schooling is complete. Of course, with social media such as Facebook and LinkedIn, these networks are easier than ever to maintain. Another latent function is the ability to work with others in small groups, a skill that is transferable to a workplace and that might not be learned in a homeschool setting.
The educational system, especially as experienced on university campuses, has traditionally provided a place for students to learn about various social issues. There is ample opportunity for social and political advocacy, as well as the ability to develop tolerance to the many views represented on campus. In 2011, the Occupy Wall Street movement swept across college campuses all over the United States, leading to demonstrations in which diverse groups of students were unified with the purpose of changing the political climate of the country.
Manifest Functions: Openly stated functions with intended goals Latent Functions: Hidden, unstated functions with sometimes unintended consequences Socialization Courtship Transmission of culture Social networks Social control Working in groups Social placement Creation of generation gap Cultural innovation Political and social integration Manifest and Latent Functions of Education. According to Functionist theory, educations contributes to both manifest and latent functions.
::教育的明显和潜在功能:根据功能论理论,教育既能起到明显功能,又能起到潜在功能。
Functionalists recognize other ways that schools educate and enculturate students. One of the most important American values students in the United States learn is that of individualism—the valuing of the individual over the value of groups or society as a whole. In countries such as Japan and China, where the good of the group is valued over the rights of the individual, students do not learn as they do in the United States that the highest rewards go to the “best” individual in academics as well as athletics. One of the roles of schools in the United States is fostering self-esteem; conversely, schools in Japan focus on fostering social esteem—the honoring of the group over the individual.
::美国最重要的美国学生所学会的价值观之一是个人主义——个人对群体或整个社会价值的估价;在日本和中国等国,群体的利益受到个人权利的珍视,学生没有像美国学生那样学到最高奖赏的学术和体育“最佳”个人。美国学校的作用之一是培养自尊;反之,日本的学校侧重于培养社会尊重——群体对个人的荣誉。In the United States, schools also fill the role of preparing students for competition in life. Obviously, athletics foster a competitive nature, but even in the classroom students compete against one another academically. Schools also fill the role of teaching patriotism. Students recite the Pledge of Allegiance each morning and take history classes where they learn about national heroes and the nation’s past.
::在美国,学校也扮演了培养学生参加生活中竞争的角色。 显然,体育培养了竞争的性质,但即使是在课堂上,学生也在学术上相互竞争。 学校也扮演了教授爱国主义的角色。 学生们每天早上背诵爱心的誓言,在历史课上学习民族英雄和国家历史。
Starting each day with the Pledge of Allegiance is one way in which students are taught patriotism. (Photo courtesy of Jeff Turner/flickr)
::从每日起,学生们就学习爱国主义。 (Jeff Turner/Flickr赠送照片)
Another role of schools, according to functionalist theory, is that of sorting , or classifying students based on academic merit or potential. The most capable students are identified early in schools through testing and classroom achievements. Such students are placed in accelerated programs in anticipation of successful college attendance.
::根据功能论理论,学校的另一个作用是根据学术成绩或潜力对学生进行分类或分类。 在学校早期通过测试和课堂成绩确定最有能力的学生。 这些学生被安排在加速课程中,因为预计会成功上大学。Functionalists also contend that school, particularly in recent years, is taking over some of the functions that were traditionally undertaken by family. Society relies on schools to teach about human sexuality as well as basic skills such as budgeting and job applications—topics that at one time were addressed by the family.
::功能论者还认为,学校,特别是近年来的学校,正在接管传统上由家庭承担的一些职能,社会依靠学校传授人类性知识以及基本技能,如预算编制和工作申请等,这些主题曾经由家庭处理。Conflict Theory on Education
::教育冲突理论Conflict theorists do not believe that public schools reduce social inequality. Rather, they believe that the educational system reinforces and perpetuates social inequalities arising from differences in class, gender, race, and ethnicity. Where functionalists see education as serving a beneficial role, conflict theorists view it more negatively. To them, educational systems preserve the status quo and push people of lower status into obedience.
::冲突理论家并不认为公立学校会减少社会不平等,相反,他们认为教育系统会强化和延续因阶级、性别、种族和族裔差异而产生的社会不平等。 当功能论者认为教育起到有益作用时,冲突理论家会更消极地看待教育。 对他们来说,教育系统会维持现状,并将地位较低的人推向顺从。
Conflict theorists see the education system as a means by which those in power stay in power. (Photo courtesy Thomas Ricker/flickr)
::冲突论者认为教育系统是掌权者继续掌权的手段。 (Photo礼节Thomas Ricker/flickr)
The fulfillment of one’s education is closely linked to social class. Students of low socioeconomic status are generally not afforded the same opportunities as students of higher status, no matter how great their academic ability or desire to learn. Picture a student from a working-class home who wants to do well in school. On a Monday, he’s assigned a paper that’s due Friday. Monday evening, he has to babysit his younger sister while his divorced mother works. Tuesday and Wednesday, he works stocking shelves after school until 10:00 p.m. By Thursday, the only day he might have available to work on that assignment, he’s so exhausted he can’t bring himself to start the paper. His mother, though she’d like to help him, is so tired herself that she isn’t able to give him the encouragement or support he needs. And since English is her second language, she has difficulty with some of his educational materials. They also lack a computer and printer at home, which most of his classmates have, so they have to rely on the public library or school system for access to technology. As this story shows, many students from working class families have to contend with helping out at home, contributing financially to the family, poor study environments and a lack of support from their families. This is a difficult match with education systems that adhere to a traditional curriculum that is more easily understood and completed by students of higher social classes.
::完成一个人的教育与社会阶级密切相关。 社会经济地位低的学生通常没有与高年级学生一样的机会,不管他们的学术能力或学习愿望有多高。 想象一个工人阶级家庭的学生想要在学校做得很好。 在星期一,他分配了一份周五到期的论文。 星期一晚上,他必须在离异母亲工作的时候照看他的妹妹。周二和周三,他放学后在书架上工作到晚上10点。 星期四,他可能只有一天的时间可以从事这项工作,他已经精疲力尽了,他无法开始写论文。他的母亲虽然喜欢帮助他,但很疲倦,无法给予他所需的鼓励或支持。 由于英语是她的第二语言,她很难读到他的一些教育材料。 由于家里缺少计算机和打印机,他的大部分同学不得不依靠公共图书馆或学校系统来获取技术。 这个故事表明,许多来自工作阶层家庭的学生,虽然喜欢帮助他,但是她很疲倦,但是在经济上更难地学习家庭。
Education and Inequality
::教育与不平等Conflict theory does not dispute most of the functions just described. However, it does give some of them a different slant and talks about various ways in which education perpetuates social inequality (Hill, Macrine, & Gabbard, 2010; Liston, 1990). Hill, D., Macrine, S., & Gabbard, D. (Eds.). (2010). Capitalist education: Globalisation and the politics of inequality . New York, NY: Routledge; Liston, D. P. (1990). Capitalist schools: Explanation and ethics in radical studies of schooling . New York, NY: Routledge. One example involves the function of social placement. As most schools track their students starting in grade school, the students thought by their teachers to be bright are placed in the faster tracks (especially in reading and arithmetic), while the slower students are placed in the slower tracks; in high school, three common tracks are the college track, vocational track, and general track.
::冲突理论与刚才描述的大多数功能没有争议,但是,它确实给其中一些功能提供了不同的偏向,并谈论了教育使社会不平等长期存在的各种方式(Hill、Macrine、和Gabbard,2010年;Liston,1990年)。Hill、D.、Macrine、S.和Gabbard,D.(Eds.),(2010年)。Capititalist教育:全球化和不平等政治。纽约州:Routledge;Liston,D.P.(1990年)。首都学校:激进的学校学习中的解释和伦理。纽约州:Routledge。一个例子涉及社会安置的功能。随着大多数学校从小学开始跟踪学生,教师认为聪明的学生被置于更快的轨道上(尤其是阅读和算术方面),而较慢的学生被置于较慢的轨道上;在高中,三个共同轨道是学院轨道、职业轨道和一般轨道。
Conflict theorists point to tracking , a formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced versus low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities. While educators may believe that students do better in tracked classes because they are with students of similar ability and may have access to more individual attention from teachers, conflict theorists feel that tracking leads to self-fulfilling prophecies in which students live up (or down) to teacher and societal expectations (Education Week 2004).
::冲突理论家指出跟踪,这是一个正式的分类系统,让学生走上“轨道 ” ( 先进与低成就者 ) , 使不平等永久化。 虽然教育者可能认为学生在跟踪班里表现更好,因为他们有类似的能力,并且可能从教师那里得到更多的个别关注,但冲突理论家认为跟踪会导致学生在上下生活到教师和社会期望的预言(教育周,2004年)自我实现(或下降 ) 。
Such tracking does have its advantages; it helps ensure that bright students learn as much as their abilities allow them, and it helps ensure that slower students are not taught over their heads. But, conflict theorists say, tracking also helps perpetuate social inequality by locking students into faster and lower tracks. Worse yet, several studies show that students’ social class and race and ethnicity affect the track into which they are placed, even though their intellectual abilities and potential should be the only things that matter: white, middle-class students are more likely to be tracked “up,” while poorer students and students of color are more likely to be tracked “down.” Once they are tracked, students learn more if they are tracked up and less if they are tracked down. The latter tend to lose self-esteem and begin to think they have little academic ability and thus do worse in school because they were tracked down. In this way, tracking is thought to be good for those tracked up and bad for those tracked down. Conflict theorists thus say that tracking perpetuates social inequality based on social class and race and ethnicity (Ansalone, 2006; Oakes, 2005). Ansalone, G. (2006). Tracking: A return to Jim Crow. Race, Gender & Class, 13 , 1–2; Oakes, J. (2005). Keeping track: How schools structure inequality (2nd ed.). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
::这种跟踪确实有其优势;它有助于确保聪明学生学习他们的能力所允许的更多内容;它有助于确保低年级学生不会被高头教育。 但是,冲突理论家说,跟踪也通过将学生锁在更快和较低的轨道上而帮助社会不平等永久化。 更糟糕的是,一些研究表明学生的社会阶级、种族和族裔影响他们所处的轨道,尽管他们的智力和潜力应该是唯一重要的东西:白人、中产阶级学生更有可能被跟踪“提升 ” , 而贫困学生和有色学生更有可能被跟踪“下降 ” 。 但是,冲突理论家说,一旦跟踪他们,如果跟踪他们,学生就会学到更多,如果跟踪他们就会学习更少。 后者往往失去自尊,并开始认为他们缺乏学术能力,因此因为被跟踪而在学校做得更差。 这样,跟踪被认为对那些被跟踪的人是好的,对被跟踪的人来说是坏的。 冲突论者因此说,跟踪社会阶级和种族和族裔的社会不平等(Asloar,2006年;Okees,2005年;Aslo,G. (2006年)。 继续跟踪:Aral, Jral, Jral, 2005)。
Social inequality is also perpetuated through the widespread use of standardized tests. Critics say these tests continue to be culturally biased, as they include questions whose answers are most likely to be known by white, middle-class students, whose backgrounds have afforded them various experiences that help them answer the questions. They also say that scores on standardized tests reflect students’ socioeconomic status and experiences in addition to their academic abilities. To the extent this critique is true, standardized tests perpetuate social inequality (Grodsky, Warren, & Felts, 2008). Grodsky, E., Warren, J. R., & Felts, E. (2008). Testing and social stratification in American education. Annual Review of Sociology, 34 (1), 385–404.
::批评家们说,这些测试仍然具有文化偏见,因为其答案最有可能为白人中产阶级学生所知道,他们的背景使他们有各种经验,帮助他们回答问题。 他们还说,标准化测试的分数除了他们的学术能力外,还反映了学生的社会经济地位和经历。 在这种批评是真实的程度上,标准化测试使社会不平等永久化(Grodsky, Warren, & Felts, 2008, Grodsky, E., Warren, J. R. & Felts, E. (2008)。 美国教育中的测试和社会分数。 社会学年度评论, 34(1), 385-404。
::对冲突理论家来说,学校的作用是培训工人阶级学生接受和保留其社会低级成员的地位,他们认为,通过富人和贫穷社区的学生可利用的资源差异以及通过测试实现这一作用(Lauen和Tyson,2008年)。IQ tests have been attacked for being biased—for testing cultural knowledge rather than actual intelligence. For example, a test item may ask students what instruments belong in an orchestra. To correctly answer this question requires certain cultural knowledge—knowledge most often held by more affluent people who typically have more exposure to orchestral music. Though experts in testing claim that bias has been eliminated from tests, conflict theorists maintain that this is impossible. These tests, to conflict theorists, are another way in which education does not provide opportunities, but instead maintains an established configuration of power.
::智商测试因偏颇而遭到攻击 — — 测试文化知识而不是实际智力。 比如,测试项目可能问学生什么乐团的乐器。 要正确回答这个问题,需要某些文化知识 — — 通常更富的人掌握知识,他们更喜欢乐团音乐。 尽管测试专家声称偏见已经从测试中消除,但冲突理论家认为这是不可能的。 这些测试 — — 冲突理论家 — — 是教育不提供机遇的另一种方式,而是维持既定的权力配置。
Conflict theorists also say that schooling teaches a , by which they mean a set of values and beliefs that support the status quo, including the existing social hierarchy (Booher-Jennings, 2008) Booher-Jennings, J. (2008). Learning to label: Socialisation, gender, and the hidden curriculum of high-stakes testing. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 29 , 149–160 . Although no one plots this behind closed doors, our schoolchildren learn patriotic values and respect for authority from the books they read and from various classroom activities.
::冲突理论家还说,学校教育还教导人们,他们指的是支持现状的一套价值观和信仰,包括现有的社会等级(Booher-Jennings,2008年,Booher-Jennings,J.2008年)。学会了标签:社会化、性别以及隐藏的高级测试课程。《英国教育社会学杂志》,29,149-160。 尽管没有人在闭门而入,但我们的学童从他们阅读的书籍和各种课堂活动中学习爱国价值观和对权威的尊重。
Interactionist Perspective on Education
::教育的交互互动观点Symbolic interactionist studies of education examine social interaction in the classroom, on the playground, and in other school venues. These studies help us understand what happens in the schools themselves, but they also help us understand how what occurs in school is relevant for the larger society. Some studies, for example, show how children’s playground activities reinforce gender-role socialization. Girls tend to play more cooperative games, while boys play more competitive sports (Thorne, 1993) Thorne, B. (1993). Gender play: Girls and boys in school . New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
::对教育的象征式互动研究审视了课堂、操场和其他学校场所的社会互动。 这些研究有助于我们了解学校本身发生的情况,但也帮助我们了解学校发生的情况如何与广大社会相关。 比如,一些研究显示,儿童操场活动如何强化了性别角色的社会化。 女孩往往玩更多的合作游戏,而男孩则玩更多的竞技运动(Thorne,1993年)Thorne,B.(1993年)。 性别游戏:在校男女生。新不伦瑞克,NJ:Rutgers大学出版社。Research also shows that teachers’ views about students can affect how much the students learn. When teachers think students are smart, they tend to spend more time with them, to call on them, and to praise them when they give the right answer. Not surprisingly these students learn more because of their teachers’ behavior. But when teachers think students are less bright, they tend to spend less time with them and act in a way that leads the students to learn less. One of the first studies to find this example of a self-fulfilling prophecy was conducted by Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson (1968). Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the classroom . New York, NY: Holt. They tested a group of students at the beginning of the school year and told their teachers which students were bright and which were not. They tested the students again at the end of the school year; not surprisingly the bright students had learned more during the year than the less bright ones. But it turned out that the researchers had randomly decided which students would be designated bright and less bright. Because the “bright” students learned more during the school year without actually being brighter at the beginning, their teachers’ behavior must have been the reason. In fact, their teachers did spend more time with them and praised them more often than was true for the “less bright” students. To the extent this type of self-fulfilling prophecy occurs, it helps us understand why tracking is bad for the students tracked down.
::研究还表明,教师对学生的看法会影响学生的学习程度。 当教师认为学生聪明时,他们往往会花更多的时间与他们在一起,呼吁他们,并在他们给出正确的答案时赞扬他们。毫不奇怪,这些学生会因为他们的教师行为而学到更多的东西。但是当教师认为学生不够聪明时,他们往往花较少的时间与他们在一起,并且以导致学生学习较少的方式行事。第一批发现这种自我实现预言的例子的研究之一是罗伯特·罗森塔尔和列诺尔·雅各布森(1968年)进行的。罗森塔尔、R、和雅各布森(1968年)和罗森(1968年)。罗森塔尔、R、雅各布森(1968年)和皮格玛利翁(Pygmalion)在课堂上花费更多时间与他们在一起,纽约:霍尔特(Holt)在学年开始时测试了一组学生,告诉了他们的老师们哪些是聪明的,哪些是少一些学生学习的。他们在学年结束时再次测试;聪明的学生比不聪明的学生学习得令人惊讶。但结果是,研究人员随机地决定哪些学生会被指定为明亮和不明的。 “为什么”学生们开始的学习得更清楚。
Other research focuses on how teachers treat girls and boys. Several studies from the 1970s through the 1990s found that teachers call on boys more often and praise them more often (American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, 1998; Jones & Dindia, 2004). American Association of University Women Educational Foundation. (1998). Gender gaps: Where schools still fail our children . Washington, DC: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation; Jones, S. M., & Dindia, K. (2004). A meta-analystic perspective on sex equity in the classroom. Review of Educational Research, 74 , 443–471. Teachers did not do this consciously, but their behavior nonetheless sent an implicit message to girls that math and science are not for girls and that they are not suited to do well in these subjects. This body of research stimulated efforts to educate teachers about the ways in which they may unwittingly send these messages and about strategies they could use to promote greater interest and achievement by girls in math and science (Battey, Kafai, Nixon, & Kao, 2007). Battey, D., Kafai, Y., Nixon, A. S., & Kao, L. L. (2007). Professional development for teachers on gender equity in the sciences: Initiating the conversation. Teachers College Record, 109 (1), 221–243.
::其他研究的重点是教师如何对待女孩和男孩。1970年代到1990年代的几项研究发现,教师更经常地呼吁男孩,更经常地赞扬男孩(美国大学妇女教育基金会协会,1998年;琼斯和丹迪亚,2004年)。美洲大学妇女教育基金会协会(1998年),性别差距:学校仍然令我们的孩子失望。华盛顿特区:美国大学妇女教育基金会协会;琼斯,斯梅,和迪因迪亚,K.(2004年),关于课堂中性别公平问题的元分析观点。对教育研究的审查,74,443-471。教师并没有有意识地这样做,但是他们的行为却向女孩发出了一个暗含的信息,即数学和科学不适合女孩,而且不适合在这些科目中做得很好。这一研究激励了教育教师如何不自觉地传递这些信息,以及他们可以使用哪些战略来提高女孩在数学和科学方面的兴趣和成就(Battey,Kafai,尼克松,和考奥,2007年)。Battey,D.,Kafai,Y.,尼克松,A.S.和S.S.S. Studireal,L.和I.Sregrealsreal,L.和L.和L.
Research guided by the symbolic interactionist perspective suggests that teachers’ expectations may influence how much their students learn. When teachers expect little of their students, their students tend to learn less.
::以象征性互动主义观点为指导的研究表明,教师的期望可能会影响学生的学习程度。 当教师对学生期望少时,学生的学习往往会少一些。© ThinkstockKEY TAKEAWAYS
::重要任务-
According to the functional perspective, education helps socialize children and prepare them for their eventual entrance into the larger society as adults.
::根据功能观点,教育帮助儿童实现社会化,并使他们为最终作为成人进入大社会做好准备。 -
The conflict perspective emphasizes that education reinforces inequality in the larger society.
::冲突观点强调,教育强化了广大社会中的不平等。 -
The symbolic interactionist perspective focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on school playgrounds, and at other school-related venues. Social interaction contributes to gender-role socialization, and teachers’ expectations may affect their students’ performance.
::象征性的互动主义观点侧重于课堂、学校操场和其他与学校相关的场所的社会互动。 社会互动有助于性别角色的社会化,教师的期望可能会影响学生的成绩。
Education in the United States
::美国的教育Education in the United States is a massive social institution involving millions of people and billions of dollars. About 75 million people, almost one-fourth of the U.S. population, attend school at all levels. This number includes 40 million in grades pre-K through 8, 16 million in high school, and 19 million in college (including graduate and professional school). They attend some 132,000 elementary and secondary schools and about 4,200 2-year and 4-year colleges and universities and are taught by about 4.8 million teachers and professors (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2010 . Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
::美国的教育是一个庞大的社会机构,涉及数百万人和数十亿美元。 大约7 500万人,几乎占美国人口的四分之一,在各级上学,其中包括4 000万人在开克前到8 600万在高中、1 900万在大专(包括研究生和专业学校)就读,他们就读于大约132 000所中小学和大约4 200所两年制和四年制大专院校,约有480万教师和教授(美国人口普查局,2010年)。美国人口普查局(2010年),《美国统计摘要:2010年,华盛顿特区:美国政府印刷办公室》。Retrieved from Education is a huge social institution.
::从教育中取回的是一个巨大的社会机构。Correlates of Educational Attainment
::教育成果的相互联系About 65% of U.S. high school graduates enroll in college the following fall. This is a very high figure by international standards, as college in many other industrial nations is reserved for the very small percentage of the population who pass rigorous entrance exams. They are the best of the brightest in their nations, whereas higher education in the United States is open to all who graduate high school. Even though that is true, our chances of achieving a college degree are greatly determined at birth, as social class and race/ethnicity have a significant effect on access to college. They affect whether students drop out of high school, in which case they do not go on to college; they affect the chances of getting good grades in school and good scores on college entrance exams; they affect whether a family can afford to send its children to college; and they affect the chances of staying in college and obtaining a degree versus dropping out. For these reasons, educational attainment depends heavily on family income and race and ethnicity.
::美国65%的高中毕业生在下一年秋天上大学。根据国际标准,这是一个非常高的数字,因为其他许多工业国家的大学保留给通过严格的入学考试的极小比例的人口,他们是本国最聪明的人,而美国高等教育向所有高中毕业生开放。尽管如此,我们获得大学学位的机会在出生时就大为决定,因为社会阶层和种族/族裔对进入大学有很大影响。这影响到学生是否辍学,如果学生不继续上大学,就会影响到在校获得良好成绩和大学入学考试成绩的机会;会影响到家庭能否负担送子女上大学;会影响到学生继续留学和获得学位的机会,而不是辍学。因此,教育成就在很大程度上取决于家庭收入、种族和族裔。shows how race and ethnicity affect dropping out of high school. The dropout rate is highest for Latinos and Native Americans and lowest for Asians and whites. One way of illustrating how income and race/ethnicity affect the chances of achieving a college degree is to examine the percentage of high school graduates who enroll in college immediately following graduation. As shows, students from families in the highest income bracket are more likely than those in the lowest bracket to attend college. For race/ethnicity, it is useful to see the percentage of persons 25 or older who have at least a 4-year college degree. As shows, this percentage varies significantly, with African Americans and Latinos least likely to have a degree.
::拉丁美洲人和美洲原住民的辍学率最高,亚洲人和白人的辍学率最低,说明收入和种族/族裔如何影响获得大学学位的机会的一个方法就是检查毕业后立即进入大学的高中毕业生比例,如表所示,收入最高阶层家庭的学生比最低阶层家庭的学生更有可能上大学。对于种族/族裔而言,看到至少拥有四年大学学位的25人或25岁以上人口的比例是有用的。如表所示,这一比例差异很大,非裔美国人和拉美人最不可能有学位。
Race, Ethnicity, and High School Dropout Rate, 16–24-Year-Olds, 2007
::2007年16至24岁年龄组的种族、族裔和高中辍学率,2007年
Source: Data from Planty, M., Hussar, W., Snyder, T., Kena, G., KewalRamani, A., Kemp, J.,…Nachazel, T. (2009). The condition of education 2009 (NCES 2009-081). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education.
::资料来源:Planty、M.、Hussar、W、Snyder、T.、Kena、G.、KewalRamani、A.、Kemp、J.、Nachazel、T.(2009年)提供的数据,2009年教育状况(NCES 2009-081)。
Family Income and Percentage of High School Graduates Who Attend College Immediately After Graduation, 2007
::2007年家庭收入和高中毕业生在毕业后立即上大学的百分比
Source: Data from Planty, M., Hussar, W., Snyder, T., Kena, G., KewalRamani, A., Kemp, J.,…Nachazel, T. (2009). The condition of education 2009 (NCES 2009-081). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, U.S. Department of Education.
::资料来源:Planty、M.、Hussar、W、Snyder、T.、Kena、G.、KewalRamani、A.、Kemp、J.、Nachazel、T.(2009年)提供的数据,2009年教育状况(NCES 2009-081)。Race, Ethnicity, and Percentage of Persons 25 or Older With a 4-Year College Degree, 2008
::2008年获得4年制大学学位的25岁或25岁以上人口或老年人的种族、种族、族裔和百分比
Source: Data from U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2010 . Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from .
::资料来源:美国人口普查局数据(2010年),《美国统计摘要:2010年》,华盛顿特区:美国政府印刷局。
Why do African Americans and Latinos have lower educational attainment? Two factors are commonly cited: (a) the underfunded and otherwise inadequate schools that children in both groups often attend and (b) the higher poverty of their families and lower education of their parents that often leave them ill-prepared for school even before they enter kindergarten (Ballantine & Hammack, 2009; Yeung & Pfeiffer, 2009). Ballantine, J. H., & Hammack, F. M. (2009). The sociology of education: A systematic analysis (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall; Yeung, W.-J. J., & Pfeiffer, K. M. (2009). The black-white test score gap and early home environment. Social Science Research, 38 (2), 412–437.
::非裔美国人和拉美人为什么受教育程度较低? 经常提到两个因素a) 两个群体的儿童经常就读的学校资金不足,否则就不足;(b) 家庭贫困程度较高,父母受教育程度较低,甚至在进入幼儿园之前,父母往往没有做好上学准备(Ballantine & Hammack,2009年;Yeung & Pfeiffer,2009年;Yeung & Pfeiffer,2009年;Ballantine, J.H., & Hammack, F.M.(2009年);教育的社会学:系统分析(第6版);上萨德尔河,NJ:Prentice Hall;Yeung, W.-J.J., & Pfeiffer, K.M.(2009年);黑白测试分差距和早期家庭环境;社会科学研究,38(2),412-437。
Issues in Education
::教育问题As schools strive to fill a variety of roles in their students’ lives, many issues and challenges arise. Students walk a minefield of bullying, violence in schools, the results of declining funding, plus other problems that affect their education. When Americans are asked about their opinion of public education on the Gallup poll each year, reviews are mixed at best (Saad 2008). Schools are no longer merely a place for learning and socializing. With the landmark Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka ruling in 1954, schools became a repository of much political and legal action that is at the heart of several issues in education.
::当学校努力在学生生活中扮演各种角色时,就会出现许多问题和挑战。 学生们走在欺凌、校园暴力、资金减少和其他影响他们教育的问题的边缘。 当美国人被问及他们每年对盖洛普民意测验的公众教育观点时,审查充其量是混杂的(Saad 2008 ) 。 学校不再仅仅是学习和社会化的场所。 随着1954年具有里程碑意义的托佩卡教育委员会(Brown v. Council of Education of Topeka)执政,学校成为许多政治和法律行动的宝库,成为教育中几个问题的核心。
Equal Education
::平等教育平等教育Until the 1954 Brown v. Board of Education ruling, schools had operated under the precedent set by Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896, which allowed racial segregation in schools and private businesses (the case dealt specifically with railroads) and introduced the much maligned phrase “separate but equal” into the United States lexicon. The 1954 Brown v. Board decision overruled this, declaring that state laws that had established separate schools for black and white students were, in fact, unequal and unconstitutional.
::直到1954年Brown诉教育委员会的裁决,学校一直按照1896年Plessy诉Ferguson案的先例运作,该判例允许学校和私营企业中的种族隔离(本案具体涉及铁路),并在美国词汇中引入了“分开但平等”的非常矛盾的短语。 1954年Brown诉教育委员会的裁决推翻了这一点,宣布为黑人和白人学生设立单独学校的州法律事实上是不平等和违宪的。While the ruling paved the way toward civil rights, it was also met with contention in many communities. In Arkansas in 1957, the governor mobilized the state National Guard to prevent black students from entering Little Rock Central High School. President Eisenhower, in response, sent members of the 101st Airborne Division from Kentucky to uphold the students’ right to enter the school. In 1963, almost ten years after the ruling, Governor George Wallace of Alabama used his own body to block two black students from entering the auditorium at the University of Alabama to enroll in the school. Wallace’s desperate attempt to uphold his policy of “segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever,” stated during his 1963 inauguration (PBS 2000) became known as the “Stand in the Schoolhouse Door.” He refused to grant entry to the students until a general from the Alabama National Guard arrived on President Kennedy’s order.
::尽管这项裁决为民权铺平了道路,但在许多社区中也遇到了争议。 1957年,阿肯色州州长在阿肯色州动员国家国民警卫队阻止黑人学生进入小石中央高中。 艾森豪威尔总统作为回应,派遣了来自肯塔基的第101空降师的成员来维护学生的入学权。 1963年,阿拉巴马州州长乔治·华莱士(George Wallace)用自己的身体阻止两名黑人学生进入阿拉巴马大学的礼堂注册学校。 华莱士在1963年就职(PBS 2000)期间宣称的“隔离,明天隔离,永远隔离 ” , 他不顾一切地试图坚持他的“隔离政策 ” 。 他拒绝让学生进入学校,直到阿拉巴马州国民警卫队的将军按照肯尼迪总统的命令到达。
President Eisenhower sent members of the 101st Airborne Division from Kentucky to escort black students into Little Rock Central High School after the governor of Arkansas tried to deny them entry. (Photo courtesy of the U.S. Army)
::艾森豪威尔总统从肯塔基州派出第101空降师成员, 在阿肯色州州长试图拒绝黑人学生入境之后, 护送黑人学生进入小岩石中央中学。 (美国陆军的Photo礼遇)
Presently, students of all races and ethnicities are permitted into schools, but there remains a troubling gap in the equality of education they receive. The long-term socially embedded effects of racism—and other discrimination and disadvantage—have left a residual mark of inequality in the nation’s education system. Students from wealthy families and those of lower socioeconomic status do not receive the same opportunities.
::目前,所有种族和族裔的学生都允许入学,但在他们接受教育的平等方面仍然存在令人不安的差距。 种族主义的长期社会影响 — — 以及其他歧视和不利条件 — — 给国家教育系统留下了不平等的残余印记。 富裕家庭的学生和社会经济地位较低的学生得不到同样的机会。Today’s public schools, at least in theory, are positioned to help remedy those gaps. Predicated on the notion of universal access, this system is mandated to accept and retain all students regardless of race, religion, social class, and the like. Moreover, public schools are held accountable to equitable per-student spending (Resnick 2004). Private schools, usually only accessible to students from high-income families, and schools in more affluent areas generally enjoy access to greater resources and better opportunities. In fact, some of the key predictors for student performance include socioeconomic status and family background. Children from families of lower socioeconomic status often enter school with learning deficits they struggle to overcome throughout their educational tenure. These patterns, uncovered in the landmark Coleman Report of 1966, are still highly relevant today, as sociologists still generally agree that there is a great divide in the performance of white students from affluent backgrounds and their non-white, less affluent, counterparts (Coleman 1966).
::今天的公立学校,至少在理论上,可以帮助弥补这些差距。 基于普及的概念,这个制度被授权接受和保留所有学生,而不论其种族、宗教、社会阶级等。 此外,公立学校要对公平的人均学生支出负责(Resnick 2004 ) 。 私立学校,通常只有高收入家庭的学生才能进入,而较富裕地区的学校一般都能获得更多的资源和更好的机会。 事实上,一些学生成绩的关键预测器包括社会经济地位和家庭背景。 社会经济地位较低的家庭的儿童在入学时往往学习不足,他们在整个教育期间都难以克服。 1966年的《科尔曼报告 》 揭示的这些模式今天仍然具有高度相关性,因为社会学家仍然普遍认为来自富裕背景的白人学生及其非白人、较不富裕的对应人员(Coleman 1966 ) 的表现存在巨大差距。
No Child Left Behind
::无儿童留下In 2001, the Bush administration passed the No Child Left Behind Act , which requires states to test students in designated grades. The results of those tests determine eligibility to receive federal funding. Schools that do not meet the standards set by the Act run the risk of having their funding cut. Sociologists and teachers alike have contended that the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act is far more negative than positive, arguing that a “one size fits all” concept cannot apply to education.
::2001年,布什政府通过了《禁止留守儿童法案》,该法案要求各州在指定年级对学生进行测试,这些测试的结果决定了获得联邦资助的资格。 不符合该法案规定的标准的学校有被削减资金的风险。 社会学家和教师都认为《禁止留守儿童法案》的影响比正面大得多,认为“一刀切”的概念不能适用于教育。
Bilingual Education
::双语教育New issues of inequality have entered the national conversation in recent years with the issue of bilingual education, which attempts to give equal opportunity to minority students through offering instruction in languages other than English. Though it is actually an old issue (bilingual education was federally mandated in 1968), it remains one of hot debate. Supporters of bilingual education argue that all students deserve equal opportunities in education—opportunities some students cannot access without instruction in their first language. On the other side, those who oppose bilingual education often point to the need for English fluency in everyday life and in the professional world.
::近年来,全国关于新不平等问题的谈话涉及双语教育问题,它试图通过以英语以外的语言提供教学,为少数民族学生提供平等的机会。虽然这是一个老问题(1968年规定实行双语教育,1968年联邦授权实行双语教育),但它仍然是一个激烈的辩论。双语教育的支持者认为,所有学生都应享有平等的教育机会——有些学生没有第一语言的教学就无法获得平等机会。 另一方面,反对双语教育的人往往指出日常生活和专业世界需要英语流利。
Charter Schools
::特许学校Charter schools are self-governing public schools that have signed agreements with state governments to improve students when poor performance is revealed on tests required by the No Child Left Behind Act. While such schools receive public money, they are not subject to the same rules that apply to regular public schools. In return, they make agreements to achieve specific results. Charter schools, as part of the public education system, are free to attend, and are accessible via lottery when there are more students seeking enrollment than there are spots available at the school. Some charter schools specialize in certain fields, such as the arts or science, while others are more generalized.
::特许学校是自治公立学校,它与州政府签订了协议,在《无儿童落后法》规定的考试显示成绩不佳时,改善学生的成绩;这些学校虽然获得公共资金,但不受适用于正规公立学校的同样规则的约束;反过来,它们也达成取得具体成果的协议;特许学校作为公共教育系统的一部分,可以免费上学,如果寻求入学的学生比学校的招生点多,也可以通过彩票获得;有些特许学校专门从事某些领域,例如艺术或科学,而另一些则比较普及。
Home Schooling
::家政学校Homeschooling refers to children being educated in their own homes, typically by a parent, instead of in a traditional public or private school system. Proponents of this type of education argue that it provides an outstanding opportunity for student-centered learning while circumventing problems that plague today’s education system. Opponents counter that home-schooled children miss out on the opportunity for social development that occurs in standard classroom environments and school settings.
::家庭教育是指儿童在自己家中接受教育,通常是由父母一方而不是在传统的公立或私立学校系统中接受教育。 这类教育的支持者认为,这种教育为以学生为中心的学习提供了极好的机会,同时避免了困扰当今教育系统的问题。 反对的是,家庭教育的儿童错过了在标准课堂环境和学校环境中出现的社会发展机会。Proponents say that parents know their own children better than anyone else and are thus best equipped to teach them. Those on the other side of the debate assert that childhood education is a complex task and requires the degree teachers spend four years earning. After all, they argue, a parent may know her child’s body better than anyone, yet she seeks out a doctor for her child’s medical treatment. Just as a doctor is a trained medical expert, teachers are trained education experts.
::支持者说,父母比任何人都更了解自己的孩子,因此他们最有能力教育孩子。 辩论的另一面的人认为,儿童教育是一项复杂的任务,需要教师的4年收入。 毕竟,他们认为,父母可能比任何人都更了解孩子的身体,然而,她却为孩子的治疗寻找医生。 正如医生是训练有素的医学专家,教师是训练有素的教育专家。The National Center for Education Statistics shows that the quality of the national education system isn’t the only major concern of homeschoolers. While nearly half cite their reason for homeschooling as the belief that they can give their child a better education than the school system can, just under 40 percent choose homeschooling for “religious reasons” (NCES 2008). To date, researchers have not found consensus in studies evaluating the success, or lack thereof, of homeschooling.
::国家教育统计中心(National Center of Education of Education of Education Statistics)表明,国家教育体系的质量并非是家庭学校学生唯一关注的主要问题。 尽管近一半学生认为家庭学校教育的原因可以让孩子得到比学校系统更好的教育,但近40%的人出于“宗教原因”选择了家庭学校(NCES 2008 ) 。 迄今为止,研究人员尚未在评估家庭学校教育成功与否的研究中达成共识。Teaching to the Test
::教学到测试The funding tie-in of the No Child Left Behind Act has led to the social phenomenon commonly called “teaching to the test,” which describes when a curriculum focuses on equipping students to succeed on standardized tests, to the detriment of broader educational goals and concepts of learning. At issue are two approaches to classroom education: the notion that teachers impart knowledge that students are obligated to absorb, versus the concept of student-centered learning that seeks to teach children not facts, but problem solving abilities and learning skills. Both types of learning have been valued in the American school system. The former, to critics of “teaching to the test,” only equips students to regurgitate facts, while the latter, to proponents of the other camp, fosters lifelong learning and transferable work skills.
::《无留守儿童法案》的供资挂钩导致了通常被称为“测试教学”的社会现象,它描述了课程侧重于让学生能够成功完成标准化测试,而不利于更广泛的教育目标和学习概念。 问题在于课堂教育的两种方法:教师传授学生有义务吸收的知识的概念,而不是以学生为中心的学习概念,这一概念试图教育儿童不是事实,而是解决能力和学习技能问题。两种类型的学习在美国学校系统中都受到重视。 前者是批评“测试教学”的批评者,只是让学生重新认识事实,而后者则是另一个阵营的支持者,促进终身学习和可转移的工作技能。
School Vouchers and School Choice
::学校券和学校选择Another issue involving schools today is school choice . In a school choice program, the government gives parents certificates, or vouchers, that they can use as tuition at private or parochial (religious) schools.
::今天涉及学校的另一个问题是学校选择。 在学校选择方案中,政府给予家长证书或代金券,他们可以在私立或教会(宗教)学校作为学费。Advocates of school choice programs say they give poor parents an option for high-quality education they otherwise would not be able to afford. These programs, the advocates add, also help improve the public schools by forcing them to compete for students with their private and parochial counterparts. In order to keep a large number of parents from using vouchers to send their children to the latter schools, public schools have to upgrade their facilities, improve their instruction, and undertake other steps to make their brand of education an attractive alternative. In this way, school choice advocates argue, vouchers have a “competitive impact” that forces public schools to make themselves more attractive to prospective students (Walberg, 2007). Walberg, H. J. (2007). School choice: The findings . Washington, DC: Cato Institute.
::学校选择方案的倡导者说,他们让贫穷父母选择了否则他们无法负担的高质量教育。 宣传者补充说,这些方案还帮助改善公立学校,迫使他们与私人和教会的同行竞争学生。 为了不让大量父母使用票券将子女送进后一学校,公立学校必须更新其设施,改进教学,并采取其他步骤使其教育品牌成为有吸引力的替代。 这样,学校选择者争论说,凭单具有“竞争性影响 ” , 迫使公立学校对未来的学生更具吸引力(Walberg,2007年,瓦尔贝格,H.J.(2007年)。 学校选择:研究结果。 华盛顿特区:卡托研究所。Critics of school choice programs say they hurt the public schools by decreasing their enrollments and therefore their funding. Public schools do not have the money now to compete with private and parochial ones, and neither will they have the money to compete with them if vouchers become more widespread. Critics also worry that voucher programs will lead to a “brain drain” of the most academically motivated children and families from low-income schools (Caldas & Bankston, 2005). Caldas, S. J., & Bankston, C. L., III. (2005). Forced to fail: The paradox of school desegregation . Westport, CT: Praeger.
::对学校选择方案的批评者说,他们通过降低入学率从而减少其资金而伤害了公立学校。 公立学校现在没有钱去与私人和教会学校竞争,如果凭单更加普及,他们也没有钱去与它们竞争。 批评者还担心凭单方案将导致最有学术动机的儿童和低收入家庭“人才外流 ” ( Caldas & Bankston,2005年,Caldas, S. J., & Bankston,C. L.,III. (2005年),被迫失败:学校隔离的悖论。 Westport, CT: Praeger。
School Violence
::校园暴力The issue of school violence won major headlines during the 1990s, when many children, teachers, and other individuals died in the nation’s schools. From 1992 until 1999, 248 students, teachers, and other people died from violent acts (including suicide) on school property, during travel to and from school, or at a school-related event, for an average of about 35 violent deaths per year (Zuckoff, 1999). Zuckoff, M. (1999, May 21). Fear is spread around nation. The Boston Globe , p. A1. Against this backdrop, the infamous April 1999 school shootings at Columbine High School in Littleton, Colorado, where two students murdered 12 other students and one teacher before killing themselves, led to national soul-searching over the causes of teen and school violence and on possible ways to reduce it.
::20世纪90年代,学校暴力问题赢得了主要的头条新闻,许多儿童、教师和其他个人死于国家学校。 从1992年到1999年,有248名学生、教师和其他人死于学校财产暴力(包括自杀 ) 、 往返学校的路上或与学校有关的事件中,平均每年约有35人死于学校暴力(Zuckoff, 1999年Zuckoff, M. (1999年, 5月21日 ) 。 恐惧遍及全国。 在此背景下,1999年4月在科罗拉多省利特顿的Columbine高中发生的臭名昭著的学校枪击事件,其中两名学生在自杀之前杀害了另外12名学生和一名教师,导致全国对青少年和学校暴力的原因以及减少暴力的可能方式进行灵魂调查。The murders in Littleton were so numerous and cold-blooded that they would have aroused national concern under any circumstances, but they also followed a string of other mass shootings at schools. In just a few examples, in December 1997 a student in a Kentucky high school shot and killed three students in a before-school prayer group. In March 1998 two middle school students in Arkansas pulled a fire alarm to evacuate their school and then shot and killed four students and one teacher as they emerged. Two months later an Oregon high school student killed his parents and then went to his school cafeteria, where he killed two students and wounded 22 others. Against this backdrop, Littleton seemed like the last straw. Within days, school after school across the nation installed metal detectors, located police at building entrances and in hallways, and began questioning or suspending students joking about committing violence. People everywhere wondered why the schools were becoming so violent and what could be done about it (Zuckoff, 1999). Zuckoff, M. (1999, May 21). Fear is spread around nation. The Boston Globe , p. A1.
::1998年3月,阿肯色州两名中学生发出火灾警报,要求撤离学校,随后又开枪打死4名学生和1名教师。两个月后,1名俄勒冈州高中学生杀害了他的父母,然后去了学校食堂,他在那里杀死了2名学生,打伤了22人。在这个背景下,利特顿似乎是最后一根稻草。几天后,全国各地的学校安装了金属探测器,在建筑入口和走廊设置警察,开始询问或暂停学生关于暴力的玩笑。各地的人都想知道为什么学校变得如此暴力,可以做些什么(Zuckoff,1999年,Zuckoff,M.(1999年,5月21日),“恐惧”在全国蔓延。Violence can also happen on college and university campuses, although shootings are very rare. However, two recent examples illustrate that students and faculty are not immune from gun violence. In February 2010, Amy Bishop, a biology professor at the University of Alabama in Huntsville who had recently been denied tenure, allegedly shot and killed three faculty at a department meeting and wounded three others. Almost 3 years earlier, a student at Virginia Tech went on a shooting rampage and killed 32 students and faculty before killing himself.
::暴力也可能发生在大专院校校园,尽管枪击事件非常少见。 然而,最近的两个例子表明学生和教职员工无法免受枪支暴力的伤害。 2010年2月,亨特斯维尔阿拉巴马大学生物学教授Amy Bishop(Amy Bishop)最近被否决了任期,据称他在一次部门会议上开枪打死了3名教职员工,打伤了另外3人。 近3年前,弗吉尼亚理工学院的1名学生在射击狂轰滥炸,在自杀前杀死了32名学生和教职员工。
2 Million Minutes A Global Examination
::200万分钟全球考试<iframe width="854" height="510" src="https:// " frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>
::<iramle宽度="854" 高度="510" src="https://"框架边框="0" 允许全屏{/iframe><iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/t5KqaJawJIk" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>
::<iramle宽度="560" 高度="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/t5KqaJawJik" 框架边框="0" 允许全屏{/iframe>
For additional information video 20/20 Stupid in America (approximately 40 minutes)
::美洲20/20型愚蠢(约40分钟)<iframe width="420" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/Bx4pN-aiofw" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen></iframe>
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According to the functional perspective, education helps socialize children and prepare them for their eventual entrance into the larger society as adults.