Section outline

  • General

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  • 城市生活

      Objectives
    ::目标目标目标和目标目标目标目标目标

    Explain how cities evolved and why urbanization is such a recent phenomenon.
    ::解释城市是如何演变的,为什么城市化是最近的一种现象。

    Describe the models that have been proposed to explain the structure of cities.
    ::描述为解释城市结构而提出的模式。

    Summarize the theories that have been proposed to explain city life.
    ::总结为解释城市生活而提出的理论。

    Explain the relationship between people and the urban environment.
    ::解释人与城市环境之间的关系。


    Universal Generalizations
    ::普遍化

    Urbanization is a recent event in the history of the world.
    ::城市化是世界历史上最近发生的事件。

    The nature of life in preindustrial cities changed very little for almost 5,000 years.
    ::工业前城市的生活性质在近5000年中变化甚微。

    The industrial city differed greatly from the pre-industrial city.
    ::工业城市与工业前城市大不相同。

    Over-urbanization and the social problems associated with it have become a significant challenge throughout Latin America, Asia, and Africa. 
    ::在拉丁美洲、亚洲和非洲,过度城市化及其带来的社会问题已成为一项重大挑战。

    The urban environment affects human behavior.
    ::城市环境影响人类行为。

    Urban areas do not develop in random patterns.
    ::城市地区不以随机模式发展。


    Guiding Questions
    ::问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问 问

    Do you think you could live in a city without a car?
    ::你以为你可以在没有车的城市里生活吗?

    What are the benefits of living in the city?
    ::在城市生活有什么好处?

    What significant differences exist between pre-industrial cities and industrial cities?
    ::工业前城市和工业城市之间有什么重大差别?

    What types of problems does over-urbanization pose?
    ::过分城市化造成哪些类型的问题?

    Explain the theories put forth to explain city life.
    ::解释那些解释城市生活理论的理论



    URBANIZATION 
    ::城市化 城市化


    The lights of New York City are an iconic image of city life.
    ::纽约市的灯光是城市生活的标志性形象。


    Urbanization  is the study of the social, political, and economic relationships in cities, and someone specializing in  urban sociology would study those relationships. In some ways, cities can be microcosms of universal human behavior, while in others they provide a unique environment that yields their own brand of human behavior. There is no strict dividing line between rural and urban; rather, there is a continuum where one bleeds into the other. However, once a geographically concentrated population has reached approximately 100,000 people, it typically behaves like a city regardless of what its designation might be.  
    ::城市化是对城市社会、政治和经济关系的研究,而城市社会学专家会研究这些关系。 在某些方面,城市可以是人类普遍行为的缩影,而在另一些方面,城市提供独特的环境,产生自己的人类行为品牌。 农村和城市之间没有严格的分界线;相反,有一个连续的连续体,一个人在另一个城市流血。 然而,一旦一个地理集中的人口达到大约10万人,城市行为通常就如同一个城市,而不管它的名称是什么。

    The Evolution of Cities
    ::城市的演变

    The earliest cities developed in ancient times after the rise of horticultural and pastoral societies made it possible for people to stay in one place instead of having to move around to find food. Because ancient cities had no sanitation facilities, people typically left their garbage and human waste in the city streets or just outside the city wall (which most cities had for protection from possible enemies); this poor sanitation led to rampant disease and high death rates. Some cities eventually developed better sanitation procedures, including, in Rome, a sewer system (Smith, 2003). Smith, M. L. (Ed.). (2003). The social construction of ancient cities . Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.  
    ::在园艺和畜牧社会兴起之后,古代发展起来的最早的城市使人们得以留在一个地方,而不必四处寻找食物,因为古代城市没有卫生设施,人们通常将垃圾和人类废物留在城市街道上或城墙外(大多数城市都为免受可能的敌人的伤害提供了保护);这种恶劣的卫生条件导致疾病猖獗和高死亡率,一些城市最终制定了更好的卫生程序,包括在罗马建立了下水道系统(Smith,2003年)。Smith,M.L.(Ed.)(2003年)。 古代城市的社会建设。华盛顿:Smitsonian研究所出版社。

      


    According to sociologist Gideon Sjoberg (1965), there are three prerequisites for the development of a city. First, good environment with fresh water and a favorable climate; second, advanced technology, which will produce a food surplus to support non-farmers; and third, strong social organization to ensure social stability and a stable economy. Most scholars agree that the first cities were developed somewhere in ancient Mesopotamia, though there are disagreements about exactly where. Most early cities were small by today’s standards, and the largest city at the time was most likely Rome, with about 650,000 inhabitants (Chandler and Fox 1974). The factors limiting the size of ancient cities included lack of adequate sewage control, limited food supply, and immigration restrictions. For example, serfs were tied to the land, and transportation was limited and inefficient. Today, the primary influence on cities’ growth is economic forces. Since the recent economic recession has reduced housing prices, researchers are waiting to see what happens to urban migration patterns in response.
    ::社会学家吉迪恩·斯乔贝格(1965年)认为,城市发展有三个先决条件。 首先,有淡水和有利气候的良好环境;其次,先进技术,将产生粮食盈余以支持非农民;第三,强大的社会组织,以确保社会稳定和稳定的经济。 多数学者都认为第一批城市是在古代美索不达米亚某处开发的,尽管对确切位置存在分歧。 大多数早期城市按今天的标准是很小的,当时最大的城市很可能是罗马,大约有65万居民(Chandler和Fox 1974年 ) 。 限制古代城市规模的因素包括缺乏适当的排污控制、食品供应有限和移民限制。 比如,沙夫斯与土地捆绑在一起,而交通是有限和低效率的。 如今,对城市增长的主要影响是经济力量。 由于最近的经济衰退降低了住房价格,研究人员正在等待着城市移民模式发生什么反应。

      


    The Growth of Cities
    ::城市增长

    Cities became more numerous and much larger during industrialization, as people moved to be near factories and other sites of industrial production. First in Europe and then in the United States, people crowded together as never before into living conditions that were often decrepit. Lack of sanitation continued to cause rampant disease, and death rates from cholera, typhoid, and other illnesses were high. In addition, crime rates soared, and mob violence became quite common (Feldberg, 1998). Feldberg, M. (1998). Urbanization as a cause of violence: Philadelphia as a test case. In A. F. Davis & M. H. Haller (Eds.),  The peoples of Philadelphia: A history of ethnic groups and lower-class life, 1790–1940  (pp. 53–69). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
    ::在工业化期间,随着人们迁移到工厂和其他工业生产场所附近,城市变得更多,也变得更大。 首先在欧洲,然后在美国,人们空前地挤在一起,生活状况经常恶化。 缺乏卫生设施继续导致疾病蔓延,霍乱、伤寒和其他疾病的死亡率居高不下。 此外,犯罪率暴涨,暴民暴力变得相当普遍(Feldberg, 1998年, Feldberg, M. (1998年 ) 。 城市化是暴力的原因之一:费城作为试验案例。 在A. F. Davis & M. H. H. H. Haller(Eds.),《费城人民:种族群体和低阶层生活的历史》,1790-1940年(第53-69页)。费城:宾夕法尼亚大学出版社。


    Urban, Urbanized Area, Urban Cluster, and Rural Population, 2010 and 2000: United States
    ::2010年和2000年美国城市、城市、城市化地区、城市集群和农村人口

    Area Number of 2010 Urban Areas Population Percentage of Total Population
    2010 2000 2010 2000
    United States 3,573 308,745,538 281,421,906    
    Urban   249,253,271 222,360,539 80.7% 79.0%
      Urbanized Areas 486 219,922,123 192,323,824 71.2% 68.3%
      Urban Clusters 3,087 29,331,148 30,036,715 9.5% 10.7%
      Rural   59,492,267 59,061,367 19.3% 21.0%

    Views of the City
    ::纽约市的意见

    Are cities good or bad? We asked a similar question—is modernization good or bad?—earlier in this chapter, and the answer here is similar as well: cities are both good and bad. They are sites of innovation, high culture, population diversity, and excitement, but they are also sites of high crime, impersonality, and other problems.
    ::城市是好的还是坏的?我们问了一个类似的问题 — — 现代化是好的还是坏的? — — 在本章中更早地问了这个问题,这里的答案也相似:城市是好的还是坏的。 城市是创新、高文化、人口多样性和兴奋的场所,但它们也是犯罪率高、人性不纯和其他问题的场所。


    During the early 20th century, social scientists at the University of Chicago began to study urban life in general and life in Chicago in particular. Although some of these scholars were very dismayed by the negative aspects of city life, other scholars emphasized several positive aspects of city life.
    ::20世纪初,芝加哥大学的社会科学家开始研究城市生活,特别是芝加哥的城市生活。 尽管其中一些学者对城市生活的消极方面感到非常失望,但其他学者则强调了城市生活的一些积极方面。

    Source: .
    ::资料来源:

    Urbanism and Tolerance
    ::城市主义与容忍

    One of the most notable Chicago sociologists was Louis Wirth (1897–1952), who, in a well-known essay entitled “Urbanism as a Way of Life” (Wirth, 1938), Wirth, L. (1938). Urbanism as a way of life. American Journal of Sociology, 44 , 3–24.  discussed several differences between urban and rural life. In one such difference, he said that urban residents are more tolerant than rural residents of nontraditional attitudes, behaviors, and lifestyles, in part because they are much more exposed than rural residents to these nontraditional ways. Supporting Wirth’s hypothesis, contemporary research finds that urban residents indeed hold more tolerant views on several kinds of issues (Moore & Ovadia, 2006). Moore, L. M., & Ovadia, S. (2006). Accounting for spatial variation in tolerance: The effects of education and religion.  Social Forces, 84 (4), 2205–2222.
    ::最著名的芝加哥社会学家之一是Louis Wirth(1897-1952年)(1897-1952年),他在一篇著名的题为 " 以城市为生活方式 " (Wirth, 1938年, Wirth, L. (1938年), Wirth, L. (1938年) 的论文中认为,城市化作为一种生活方式。 《美国社会学杂志》, 44, 3-24. 讨论了城乡生活之间的一些差异。 在其中的一个差异中,他说,城市居民比农村居民更容忍非传统态度、行为和生活方式,部分原因是他们比农村居民更易受这些非传统方式的影响。 支持Wirth的假设,当代研究发现,城市居民确实对若干类型的问题持有更宽容的观点(Moore & Ovadia, 2006年, Moore, L. M., & Ovadia, S. (2006年) 空间变化核算:教育和宗教的影响。 社会力量, 84(4), 2205-2222)。


    Life in U.S. Cities
    ::在美国城市的生活

    Life in U.S. cities today reflects the dual view just outlined. On the one hand, many U.S. cities are vibrant places, filled with museums and other cultural attractions, nightclubs, theaters, and restaurants and populated by people from many walks of life and from varied racial and ethnic and national backgrounds. Many college graduates flock to cities, not only for their employment opportunities but also for their many activities and the sheer excitement of living in a metropolis. On the other hand, many U.S. cities are also filled with abject poverty, filthy and dilapidated housing, high crime rates, traffic gridlock, and dirty air. Many Americans would live nowhere but a city, and many would live anywhere but a city. Cities arouse strong opinions pro and con, and for good reason, because there are many things both to like and to dislike about cities.
    ::今天,美国城市的生活反映了刚才描述的双重观点。 一方面,许多美国城市都是充满活力的地方,充满了博物馆和其他文化景点、夜总会、剧院、餐馆和餐馆,由来自各行各业、不同种族、族裔和民族背景的人居住。 许多大学毕业生聚集到城市,不仅为了他们的就业机会,也为了他们的众多活动,以及生活在大城市中的巨大兴奋。 另一方面,许多美国城市也充满了赤贫、肮脏和破旧的住房、高犯罪率、交通堵塞和肮脏空气。 许多美国人将无处可住,只有城市,很多人会居住在城市以外的任何地方。 城市会引发强烈的赞成和反对意见,而且出于良好的原因,因为城市有许多东西是喜欢和不喜欢的。


    Types of Urban Residents
    ::城市居民类型

    The quality of city life depends on many factors, but one of the most important factors is a person’s social background: social class, race/ethnicity, gender, age, and sexual orientation. As earlier chapters documented, these dimensions of our social backgrounds often yield many kinds of social inequalities, and the quality of life that city residents enjoy depends heavily on these dimensions. For example, residents who are white and wealthy have the money and access to enjoy the best that cities have to offer, while those who are poor and of color typically experience the worst aspects of city life. Because of fear of rape and sexual assault, women often feel more constrained than men from traveling freely throughout a city and being out late at night; older people also often feel more constrained because of physical limitations and fear of muggings; and gays and lesbians are still subject to physical assaults stemming from homophobia. The type of resident we are, then, in terms of our socio-demographic profile affects what we experience in the city and whether that experience is positive or negative.
    ::城市生活质量取决于许多因素,但最重要的因素之一是一个人的社会背景:社会阶级、种族/族裔、性别、年龄和性取向。 正如前几章所记载的那样,我们社会背景的这些层面往往产生多种社会不平等,城市居民享有的生活质量在很大程度上取决于这些层面。 比如,白人和富裕居民拥有钱财和享受城市所能提供的最佳生活的机会,而穷人和有色人种的人通常经历城市生活最糟糕的方面。 由于对强奸和性攻击的恐惧,妇女往往比男人更难以在城市中自由旅行和深夜;老年人也往往因为身体限制和抢劫恐惧而感到更受限制;男女同性恋者仍然受到仇视同性恋的人身攻击。 因此,从我们的社会人口特征来看,我们居民的类型影响着我们在城市的经历,以及这种经历是正面还是负面的。

    The first type is  cosmopolites . These are people who live in a city because of its cultural attractions, restaurants, and other features of the best that a city has to offer. Cosmopolites include students, writers, musicians, and intellectuals.  Unmarried and childless  individuals and couples are the second type; they live in a city to be near their jobs and to enjoy the various kinds of entertainment found in most cities. If and when they marry or have children, respectively, many migrate to the suburbs to raise their families. The third type is  ethnic villagers , who are recent immigrants and members of various ethnic groups who live among each other in certain neighborhoods. These neighborhoods tend to have strong social bonds and more generally a strong sense of community. Gans wrote that all of these three types generally find the city inviting rather than alienating and have positive experiences far more often than negative ones.
    ::第一类是宇宙极人,这些是居住在城市里的人,因为他们的文化吸引、餐馆和城市必须提供的其他最佳特征。宇宙极人包括学生、作家、音乐家和知识分子。未婚和无子女的个人和夫妇是第二种类型;他们居住在城市里,接近他们的工作,享受在大多数城市中发现的各种娱乐。如果他们结婚或有子女,许多人分别移徙到郊区抚养家庭。第三类是少数民族村民,他们是最近移民,是不同种族群体的成员,居住在某些社区中,这些社区往往有着强大的社会纽带,更普遍地是一种强烈的社区意识。 Gans写道,所有这三类人一般都会发现城市邀请而不是疏远,而且往往有积极的经验,而不是消极的经验。


    Herbert Gans identified several types of city residents. One of these types is the cosmopolites, who include students, writers, musicians, and intellectuals, all of whom live in a city because of its cultural attractions and other amenities.
    ::赫伯特甘斯确定了城市居民的几种类型,其中一种是宇宙极人,其中包括学生、作家、音乐家和知识分子,他们都因为城市的文化景点和其他设施而生活在城市中。

    © Thinkstock


    In contrast, two final types of residents find the city alienating and experience a low quality of life. The first of these two types, and the fourth overall, is the  deprived . These are people with low levels of formal education who live in poverty or near-poverty and are unemployed, are underemployed, or work at low wages. They live in neighborhoods filled with trash, broken windows, and other signs of disorder. They commit high rates of crime and also have high rates of victimization by crime. The final type is the  trapped . These are residents who, as their name implies, might wish to leave their neighborhoods but are unable to do so for several reasons: they may be alcoholics or drug addicts, they may be elderly and disabled, or they may be jobless and cannot afford to move to a better area.

    Problems of City Life
    ::城市生活问题

    By definition, cities consist of very large numbers of people living in a relatively small amount of space. Some of these people have a good deal of money, but many people, and in some cities most people, have very little money. Cities must provide many kinds of services for all their residents, and certain additional services for their poorer residents. These basic facts of city life make for common sets of problems affecting cities throughout the nation, albeit to varying degrees, with some cities less able than others to address these problems.
    ::从定义上讲,城市由为数众多的生活在相对较少的空间中的人组成,其中有些人拥有大量金钱,但许多人和在有些城市中,多数人只有很少的钱。 城市必须为其所有居民提供多种服务,为较贫穷的居民提供某些额外服务。 这些城市生活的基本事实造成了影响全国城市的常见问题,尽管程度不同,但有些城市比其他城市更没有能力解决这些问题。


    Fiscal Problems
    ::财政问题

    One evident problem is  fiscal : cities typically have serious difficulties in paying for basic services such as policing, public education, trash removal, street maintenance, and, in cold climates, snow removal, and in providing certain services for their residents who are poor or disabled or who have other conditions. The fiscal difficulties that cities routinely face became even more serious with the onset of the nation’s deep recession in 2009, as the term  fiscal crisis  became a more accurate description of the harsh financial realities that cities were now facing (McNichol, 2009). McNichol, D. A. (2009, May 1). Revenue loss putting cities in fiscal vise.  The New York Times , p. NJ1.
    ::一个明显的问题是财政问题:城市通常很难支付维持治安、公共教育、垃圾清除、街道维修等基本服务的费用,在寒冷的气候下也很难清除雪雪,也很难为其贫穷或残疾或有其他条件的居民提供某些服务。 随着2009年国家深度衰退的开始,城市通常面临的财政困难变得更加严重,因为财政危机这一术语更准确地描述了城市现在面临的严峻金融现实(McNichol,2009年;McNichol,D.A.,(2009年,5月1日 ) , 《纽约时报》,第NJ1页。


    Crowding
    ::人群挤

    Another problem is  crowding . Cities are crowded in at least two ways. The first involves  residential crowding : large numbers of people living in a small amount of space. City streets are filled with apartment buildings, condominiums, row houses, and other types of housing, and many people live on any one city block. The second type of crowding is  household crowding : dwelling units in cities are typically small because of lack of space, and much smaller than houses in suburbs or rural areas. This forces many people to live in close quarters within a particular dwelling unit. Either type of crowding is associated with higher levels of stress, depression, and aggression (Regoeczi, 2008). Regoeczi, W. C. (2008). Crowding in context: An examination of the differential responses of men and women to high-density living environments.  Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 49 , 254–268.
    ::另一个问题是人口拥挤。城市的拥挤程度至少有两种。第一是住宅拥挤:大量人口生活在很小的空间里。城市街道充满了公寓楼、公寓、排房和其他类型的住房,许多人居住在任何一个城市街区。 第二种是家庭拥挤:城市的住宅单元因空间不足而通常很小,比郊区或农村地区的住房小得多。这迫使许多人居住在某个住宅单元内的近邻。 任何一类的拥挤都与压力、抑郁和侵略程度较高有关(Regoeczi, 2008年;Regoeczi, W.C. (2008))。 周围的人群:审查男女对高密度生活环境的不同反应。《健康和社会行为杂志》,49,254-268。

    Cities experience many kinds of problems, and crowding is one of them. People who live amid crowding are more likely to experience stress and depression and to engage in aggressive behavior or be victimized by it.
    ::城市经历了各种各样的问题,而挤杂是其中之一。 人群挤杂的人更有可能遭受压力和抑郁,并从事侵略行为或成为其受害者。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商


    Housing
    ::住房住房住房

    A third problem involves  housing . Here there are several related issues. Much urban housing is  substandard  and characterized by such problems as broken windows, malfunctioning heating systems, peeling paint, and insect infestation. At the same time, adequate housing is  not affordable  for many city residents, as housing prices in cities can be very high, and the residents’ incomes are typically very low. Cities thus have a great need for adequate, affordable housing.
    ::第三个问题涉及住房问题。 这里有几个相关问题。 许多城市住房都低于标准,其特点是窗户破碎、供暖系统失灵、油漆剥皮和昆虫感染等问题。 与此同时,许多城市居民买不起适足住房,因为城市房价可能很高,居民收入通常非常低。 因此,城市非常需要充足、负担得起的住房。

    Another housing issue concerns racial segregation. Although federal law prohibits segregated housing, cities across the country are nonetheless highly segregated by race, with many neighborhoods all or mostly African American. Sociologists Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton (1998) Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1998).  American apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.  termed this situation “American apartheid.” They said that these segregated neighborhoods result from a combination of several factors, including (a) “white flight” into suburbs, (b) informal—and often illegal—racially discriminatory actions that make it difficult for African Americans to move into white neighborhoods (such as real estate agents falsely telling black couples that no houses are available in a particular neighborhood), and (c) a general lack of income and other resources that makes it very difficult for African Americans to move from segregated neighborhoods.
    ::另一个住房问题涉及种族隔离问题。尽管联邦法律禁止隔离住房,但全国各地的城市仍因种族而高度隔离,许多社区都是或多半是非裔美国人。 社会学家Douglas S. Massey和Nancy A. Denton(1998年)Massey、D. S. & Denton、N. A. (1998年)。 美国种族隔离:隔离和低等阶层的形成。 剑桥:哈佛大学出版社。 将这种情况称为“美国种族隔离 ” 。 他们说,这些隔离社区是若干因素综合造成的,包括(a) “白色逃亡”到郊区,(b) 非正式的——而且往往是非法的——种族歧视行动,使非裔美国人难以搬进白人社区(例如房地产经纪人错误地告诉黑人夫妇在特定社区没有住房),以及(c) 普遍缺乏收入和其他资源,使得非裔美国人很难从隔离社区迁出。

    Massey and Denton argued that residential segregation worsens the general circumstances in which many urban African Americans live. Several reasons account for this effect. As whites flee to the suburbs, the people left behind are much poorer. The tax base of cities suffers accordingly, and along with it the quality of city schools, human services, and other social functions. All these problems help keep the crime rate high and perhaps even raise it further. Because segregated neighborhoods are poor and crime-ridden, businesses do not want to invest in them, and employment opportunities are meager. This fact worsens conditions in segregated neighborhoods even further. Consequently, concluded Massey and Denton, racial segregation helps perpetuate the urban “underclass” of people who live jobless in deep poverty and decaying neighborhoods.
    ::Massey和Denton认为,住宅隔离使许多非洲裔美国人居住在城市的一般环境更加恶化,其原因有几个。当白人逃往郊区时,留下的人就更穷了。城市的税收基础因此受到影响,再加上城市学校、公众服务和其他社会功能的质量也因此受到影响。 所有这些问题都有助于保持犯罪率高企,甚至甚至进一步提高犯罪率。由于隔离区是穷人和犯罪率高居不下,企业不愿投资于他们,就业机会也十分薄弱。这一事实使隔离区的条件进一步恶化。因此,Massey和Denton认为,种族隔离有助于长期维持生活在极度贫困和衰败的街区中的城市“下层”居民。

    Other research supports this conclusion. As a recent review summarized the evidence,
    ::其他研究支持这一结论。

    Whether voluntary or involuntary, living in racially segregated neighborhoods has serious implications for the present and future mobility opportunities of those who are excluded from desirable areas. Where we live affects our proximity to good job opportunities, educational quality, and safety from crime (both as victim and as perpetrator), as well as the quality of our social networks. (Charles, 2003, pp. 167–168) Charles, C. Z. (2003). The dynamics of racial residential segregation.  Annual Review of Sociology, 29 , 167–207.
    ::无论是自愿还是非自愿的,生活在种族隔离的邻里都严重影响了那些被排斥在适当区域之外的人目前和未来的流动机会。 我们生活的地方影响着我们接近良好的就业机会、教育质量和免受犯罪(既包括作为受害者也包括犯罪者)以及社会网络的质量。 (Charles,2003年,第167-188页)Charles,C.Z.(2003年)。 种族居住隔离的动态。《社会学年度评论》,第29、167-207页。


    Traffic and Pollution
    ::交通和污染

    A fourth problem of city life is  traffic . Gridlock occurs in urban areas, not rural ones, because of the sheer volume of traffic and the sheer number of intersections controlled by traffic lights or stop signs. Some cities have better public transportation than others, but traffic and commuting are problems that urban residents experience every day.
    ::城市生活的第四个问题是交通问题,因为交通量巨大,交通灯或停车标志所控制的十字路口数量之多,因此,城市而不是农村地区都存在格洛克问题,有些城市的公共交通比其他城市更好,但交通和通勤是城市居民每天遇到的问题。

    Traffic is a major problem in cities. The great number of motor vehicles in a relatively small space often leads to gridlock and contributes greatly to air pollution.
    ::交通是城市的一个主要问题,在相对较小的空间里,机动车辆数量庞大,往往导致交通堵塞,并在很大程度上造成空气污染。

    © Thinkstock
    ::智商

    A related problem is  pollution . Traffic creates pollution from motor vehicles’ exhaust systems, and some cities have factories and other enterprises that also pollute. As a result, air quality in cities is substandard, and the poor quality of air in cities has been linked to respiratory and heart disease and higher mortality rates (Stylianou & Nicolich, 2009).
    ::与此相关的问题是污染。 交通造成机动车排气系统污染,一些城市的工厂和其他企业也污染污染。 结果,城市的空气质量低于标准,城市空气质量差与呼吸道疾病和心脏病以及高死亡率有关(Stylianou & Nicolich,2009年)。


    Public Education
    ::公共教育 公共教育

    Yet another issue for cities is the state of their  public education . Many city schools are housed in old buildings that, like much city housing, are falling apart. City schools are notoriously underfunded and lack current textbooks, adequate science equipment, and other instructional materials.
    ::城市的另一个问题是其公共教育状况。 许多城市学校都位于旧建筑中,这些旧建筑与许多城市住房一样正在崩溃。 城市学校资金严重不足,缺乏现有的教科书、适当的科学设备和其他教学材料。

     

    Crime
    ::犯罪 犯罪

    Although cities have many additional problems,  crime  is an appropriate issue with which to end this section because of its importance. Simply put, cities have much higher rates of violent and property crime than do small towns or rural areas. For example, the violent crime rate (number of crimes per 100,000 residents) in 2009 was 459 for the nation’s largest cities, compared to only 202 for rural counties. The property crime rate in the largest cities was 3,160 crimes per 100,000, compared to only 1,570 in rural counties (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2010). Federal Bureau of Investigation. (2010).  Crime in the United States, 2009 . Washington, DC: Author.  Crime rates in large cities are thus two to three times higher than those in rural counties.
    ::简言之,城市的暴力和财产犯罪率比小城镇或农村地区要高得多,例如,2009年全国最大城市的暴力犯罪率(每10万居民的犯罪率)为459人,而农村各县只有202人。最大的城市的财产犯罪率为每10万县3 160人,而农村各县只有1 570人(联邦调查局,2010年)。联邦调查局(2010年)。美国的犯罪率,2009年,华盛顿特区:作者。因此,大城市的犯罪率比农村各县高2至3倍。


    Global Urbanization
    ::全球城市化

    Urbanization varies around the world. In general, wealthy nations are more urban than poor nations (see  ), thanks in large part to the latter’s rural economies. This variation, however, obscures the fact that the world is becoming increasingly urban overall. In 1950, less than one-third of the world’s population lived in cities or towns; in 2008, more than half the population lived in cities or towns, representing the first time in history that a majority of people were  not  living in rural areas (United Nations Population Fund, 2007). United Nations Population Fund. (2007). Linking population, poverty, and development. Urbanization: A majority in cities. Retrieved from   By 2030, almost two-thirds of the world’s population is projected to live in urban areas.
    ::世界各地的城市化情况不尽相同。 一般来说,富裕国家比贫穷国家更城市化(见 ) , 这在很大程度上要归功于后者的农村经济。 然而,这一差异掩盖了世界正日益城市化的事实。 1950年,不到三分之一的世界人口生活在城市或城镇;2008年,超过一半的人口生活在城镇,这是历史上首次有多数人口不居住在农村地区(联合国人口基金,2007年)。 联合国人口基金(2007年)。 将人口、贫穷和发展联系起来。 城市化:城市占多数。 预计到2030年,将近三分之二的世界人口将生活在城市地区。

    The number of urban residents will increase rapidly in the years ahead, especially in Africa and Asia as people in these continents’ nations move to urban areas and as their populations continue to grow through natural fertility. Fertility is a special problem in this regard for two reasons. First, and as we saw earlier, women in poor nations have higher fertility rates for several reasons. Second, poorer nations have very high proportions of young people, and these high rates mean that many births occur because of the large number of women in their childbearing years.
    ::未来几年城市居民的数量将迅速增加,特别是在非洲和亚洲,因为这两个大陆国家的人口将迁移到城市地区,而且其人口将继续通过自然生育率增长。 生育率是这方面的一个特殊问题,原因有二。 首先,正如我们早些时候所看到的那样,贫穷国家的妇女生育率较高有几个原因。 其次,较贫穷国家青年比例很高,这些高比率意味着许多生育都是由于育龄期妇女人数众多所致。

    Figure  Percentage of Population Living in Urban Areas, 2005
    ::2005年城市居民人口比例 2005年

    Source: Adapted from    
    ::资料来源:改编自

    This trend poses both opportunities and challenges for poorer nations. The opportunities are many. Jobs are more plentiful in cities than in rural areas and incomes are higher, and services such as health care and schooling are easier to deliver because people are living more closely together. In another advantage, women in poorer nations generally fare better in cities than in rural areas in terms of education and employment possibilities (United Nations Population Fund, 2007). United Nations Population Fund. (2007). Linking population, poverty, and development. Urbanization: A majority in cities. Retrieved from 
    ::这一趋势为较贫穷国家带来了机会和挑战,给较贫穷国家带来了许多机会:城市就业比农村地区多,收入较高,而且由于人们生活更紧密,保健和学校教育等服务更容易提供;另一个好处是,较贫穷国家的妇女一般在城市比农村地区在教育和就业机会方面要好(联合国人口基金,2007年;联合国人口基金,2007年);将人口、贫穷和发展联系起来;城市化:城市中多数人。

    But there are also many challenges. In the major cities of poor nations, homeless children live in the streets as beggars, and many people lack necessities and conveniences that urban dwellers in industrial nations take for granted. As the United Nations Population Fund (2007) United Nations Population Fund. (2007). Linking population, poverty, and development. Urbanization: A majority in cities. Retrieved from   warns, “One billion people live in urban slums, which are typically overcrowded, polluted and dangerous, and lack basic services such as clean water and sanitation.” The rapid urbanization of poor nations will compound the many problems these nations already have, just as the rapid urbanization in the industrial world more than a century ago led to the disease and other problems discussed earlier. As cities grow rapidly in poor nations, moreover, these nations’ poverty makes them ill equipped to meet the challenges of urbanization. Helping these nations meet the needs of their cities remains a major challenge for the world community in the years ahead. In this regard, the United Nations Population Fund (United Nations Population Fund, 2007) United Nations Population Fund. (2007). Linking population, poverty, and development. Urbanization: A majority in cities. Retrieved from   urges particular attention to housing:  
    ::但是,也存在许多挑战。在贫穷国家的主要城市,无家可归的儿童作为乞丐在街头流浪,许多人缺乏工业国家城市居民理所当然的必需品和方便。正如联合国人口基金(2007年)联合国人口基金(2007年)联合国人口基金(2007年),将人口、贫穷和发展联系起来。城市化:城市中的多数人口。从警告中发现,“10亿人生活在城市贫民窟,这些贫民窟通常拥挤、污染和危险,缺乏清洁用水和卫生设施等基本服务。” 贫穷国家的迅速城市化将加剧这些国家已经存在的许多问题,正如一个多世纪前工业化世界的迅速城市化导致疾病和前面讨论的其他问题一样。此外,由于城市在贫穷国家迅速增长,这些国家的贫穷使他们无力应付城市化的挑战。帮助这些国家满足城市的需要,在今后几年中仍然是世界社会的一大挑战。在这方面,联合国人口基金(联合国人口基金,2007年)联合国人口基金(2007年)将人口、贫穷和发展联系起来。城市化:城市中的多数人。敦促特别注意住房:住房:城市中的多数人。

    Addressing the housing needs of the poor will be critical. A roof and an address in a habitable area are the first step to a better life. Improving access to basic social and health services, including reproductive health care, for poor people in urban slums is also critical to breaking the cycle of poverty.
    ::满足穷人的住房需求至关重要,在可居住地区建造屋顶和解决住房问题是改善生活的第一步,改善城市贫民窟穷人获得基本社会服务和保健服务,包括生殖保健服务的机会,对于打破贫穷循环也至关重要。


    KEY TAKEAWAYS
    ::重要任务

    • A double-edged view of cities has long existed in sociology. In the early 20th century, social scientists at the University of Chicago adopted Émile Durkheim’s more positive view of urbanization.
      ::社会学中长期存在对城市的双面观点。 在20世纪初,芝加哥大学的社会科学家们采纳了埃米尔·杜尔克海姆对城市化的更为积极的观点。


      ::社会学中长期存在对城市的双面观点。 在20世纪初,芝加哥大学的社会科学家们采纳了埃米尔·杜尔克海姆对城市化的更为积极的观点。

    • Social inequality based on social class, race/ethnicity, gender, age, and sexual orientation affects the quality of urban experiences. In addition to differences in their sociodemographic profiles, city residents differ in other ways. Herbert Gans identified several types of urban dwellers: cosmopolites, unmarried and childless, ethnic villagers, deprived, and trapped.
      ::基于社会阶级、种族/族裔、性别、年龄和性取向的社会不平等影响到城市经验的质量,除了其社会人口分布的差异外,城市居民还以其他方式有所不同,Herbert Gans查明了几种类型的城市居民:宇宙主义者、未婚和无子女者、族裔村民、穷人和受困者。


      ::基于社会阶级、种族/族裔、性别、年龄和性取向的社会不平等影响到城市经验的质量,除了其社会人口分布的差异外,城市居民还以其他方式有所不同,Herbert Gans查明了几种类型的城市居民:宇宙主义者、未婚和无子女者、族裔村民、穷人和受困者。

    • Major issues and problems confronting U.S. cities today include those involving fiscal difficulties, crowding, housing, traffic, pollution, public education, and crime.
      ::今天美国城市面临的主要问题包括财政困难、拥挤、住房、交通、污染、公共教育和犯罪。


      ::今天美国城市面临的主要问题包括财政困难、拥挤、住房、交通、污染、公共教育和犯罪。

    • Cities are rapidly growing in poor nations, and this type of urbanization poses many challenges that these nations are unable to meet because of their poverty and other difficulties.
      ::贫穷国家的城市正在迅速增长,这种类型的城市化带来了许多挑战,这些国家由于贫穷和其他困难,无法应付这些挑战。


      ::贫穷国家的城市正在迅速增长,这种类型的城市化带来了许多挑战,这些国家由于贫穷和其他困难,无法应付这些挑战。

    For further information read and discuss the following article People Urbanization of America.  
    ::将进一步信息改为并讨论以下文章《美洲人民城市化》。