Section outline

  • General

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  • 地理信息系统

                                                            Glossary
    ::词汇词典

    Absolute poverty  The condition of having too little income to buy the necessities-- food, shelter, clothing, health care.
    ::绝对贫穷 -- -- 收入太少,无法购买必需品 -- -- 食物、住所、衣服、保健 -- -- 的条件。

    Achieved status  A social position (status) obtained through an individual's own talents and efforts.
    ::通过个人自己的才能和努力获得的社会地位(地位)。

    Affirmative action  The requirement that employers make special efforts to recruits hire and promote qualified members of previously excluded groups including women and minorities. 
    ::要求雇主作出特别努力,招聘和晋升以前被排斥群体中的合格成员,包括妇女和少数群体。

    Aggregate  A collection of unrelated people who do not know one another but who may occupy a common space--for example, a crowd of people crossing a city street.
    ::聚集了一群不相干的人,他们彼此不相识,但可能占据共同的空间,例如,一群人越过了城市街道。

    Agrarian societies  Societies in which large scale cultivation using plows and draft animals is the primary means of subsistence.
    ::使用犁耕和牲畜饲养的大规模耕作是维持生计的主要手段的社会。

    Alienation  The separation or estrangement of individuals from themselves and from others.
    ::使个人与自己和他人分离或分离。

    Amalgamation  The biological as well as cultural assimilation (merging) of racial or ethnic groups.
    ::种族或族裔群体的生物和文化同化(合并)。

    Anomalies  In science observations or problems that cannot be explained or solved in terms of a prevailing paradigm.
    ::科学观察或问题无法以普遍模式解释或解决。

    Anomie  A breakdown or confusion in the norms, values, and culture of a group or a society. A condition of relative normlessness.
    ::群体或社会规范、价值观和文化的崩溃或混乱,相对无规范的情况。

    Anomie theory  The theory suggesting that deviance and crime occur when there is an acute gap between cultural norms and goals and the socially structured opportunities for individuals to achieve those goals.
    ::理论表明,当文化规范和目标与个人实现这些目标的社会结构机会之间存在巨大差距时,就会出现偏差和犯罪。

    Anticipatory socialization  The process of taking on the attitudes values and behaviors of a status or role one expects to occupy in the future.
    ::接受人们期望今后占据的地位或角色的态度价值观和行为的过程。

    Apartheid  The recent policy of racial separation in South Africa enforced by legal political and military power.
    ::南非最近由合法的政治和军事强权实施的种族隔离政策。

    Ascribed status  A social position (status) such as sex, race, and social class that a person acquires at birth.
    ::一个人出生时获得的社会地位(地位),如性别、种族和社会阶层。

    Assimilation  The merging of minority and majority groups into one group with a come mon culture and identity.
    ::将少数群体和多数群体合并为一个群体,形成一个共同文化和身份。

    Association  A group of people bound together by common goals and rules, but not necessarily by close personal ties.
    ::一个由共同目标和规则联系在一起的一群人组成的协会,但不一定有密切的个人联系。

    Athletics  A form of sport that is closer to work than to play.
    ::运动员A体育形式,比游戏更接近于工作。

    Authority  Power regarded as legitimate.
    ::当局权力被视为合法。

    Autocracy  Rule or government concentrated in a single ruler or group of leaders who are willing to use force to maintain control.
    ::独裁统治或政府集中在一个或一组愿意使用武力维持控制的领导者或领导人中。

    Baby boom  The people who were born in the United States between 1946 and 1965. This group represented a sharp increase in birth rates and in the absolute number of births compared to pre-1946 levels.
    ::1946年至1965年期间在美国出生的人,与1946年以前的水平相比,这一组人口出生率和出生绝对人数急剧上升。

    Bias The influence of a scientist's personal values and attitudes on scientific observations and conclusions.
    ::科学家的个人价值观和态度对科学观察和结论的影响。

    Bicultural  The capacity to understand and function well in more than one cultural group.
    ::在不止一个文化群体中理解和发挥良好功能的能力。

    Birth rate  Number of births per year per 1000 women 15 to 44 years old.
    ::每1 000名15至44岁妇女每年出生的出生率。

    Bureaucracy  A large-scale formal organization with centralized authority, a hierarchical chain of command, explicit rules and procedures, and an emphasis on formal positions rather than on persons.
    ::一个拥有中央权力、分级指挥系统、明确规则和程序以及强调正式职位而不是强调人、的大型正式组织。

    Calling  The idea in certain branches of ascetic Protestantism that one can live acceptably to God by fulfilling the obligations imposed by one's secular position in the world.
    ::在某些新教的进化派中,人们认为,通过履行自己在世界上的世俗地位所强加的义务,人们可以接受上帝的信仰。

    Capitalism  A form of economic organization in which private individuals accumulate and invest capital, own the means of production, and control profits.
    ::资本主义是一种经济组织形式,个人在其中积累和投资资本,拥有生产手段和控制利润。

    Caste system  A closed system of social stratification in which prestige and social relationships are based on hereditary position at birth.
    ::一种封闭的社会分层系统,其威望和社会关系以出生时的世袭地位为基础。

    Centrally planned economy  An economic system that includes public ownership of or control over all productive resources and whose activity is planned by the government.
    ::经济体系,包括所有生产资源的公共所有权或控制权,其活动由政府规划。

    Charisma  The exceptional mystical or even supernatural quality of personality attributed to a person by others. Literally, "the gift of grace."
    ::超凡神秘甚至超自然的个性品质 被他人赋予给一个人。“恩赐的礼物”。

    Charismatic leader  An individual who enlists the strong emotional support of followers through personal and seemingly supernatural qualities.
    ::一位通过个人和看似超自然的品质 获得追随者强烈情感支持的人

    Charter  The capacity of certain schools to confer special rights on their graduates.
    ::某些学校赋予其毕业生特殊权利的能力。

    Church  A formally organized, institutionalized religious organization with formal and traditional religious doctrine, beliefs, and practices.
    ::教会是一个有正规和传统宗教教义、信仰和习俗的正式组织、制度化的宗教组织。

    City  A relatively permanent settlement of large numbers of people who do not grow or gather their own food.
    ::城市是一个相对永久的住区,住着大量不种植或收集自己食物的人。

    Civil law  The branch of law that deals largely with wrongs against the individual.
    ::民法 法律分支主要处理针对个人的不法行为。

    Civil religion  The interweaving of religious and political symbols in public life.
    ::在公共生活中,宗教和政治象征相互交织。

    Class  Position in a social hierarchy based on prestige and/or property ownership.
    ::在基于声望和(或)财产所有权的社会等级制度中的等级地位。

    Class conflict  The struggle between competing classes, specifically between the class that owns the means of production and the class or classes that do not.
    ::阶级冲突 相互竞争的阶级之间的争斗 特别是拥有生产手段的阶级 与不拥有生产手段的阶级之间的争斗

    Class consciousness  The sense of common class position and shared interests held by members of a social class.
    ::阶级意识 社会阶级成员持有的共同阶级立场和共同利益感。

    Class system  A system of stratification based primarily on the unequal ownership and control of economic resources.
    ::主要基于对经济资源的不平等所有权和控制权的分层制度。

    Closed system  In organizational theory, the degree to which an organization is shut off from its environment.
    ::在组织理论中,一个组织被从环境中关闭的程度。

    Coercion  A form of social interaction in which one is made to do something through the use of social pressure, threats, or force.
    ::胁迫是一种社会互动形式,通过使用社会压力、威胁或武力迫使人们有所作为。

    Cognitive development  The systematic improvement of intellectual ability through a series of stages.
    ::通过一系列阶段系统提高智力能力。

    Cognitive development theory  Suggests that individuals try to pattern their lives and experiences to form a reasonably consistent picture of their beliefs, actions, and values.
    ::认知发展理论认为,个人试图塑造自己的生活和经验,以便对其信仰、行动和价值观形成合理一致的描述。

    Cohort  Persons who share something in common, usually being born in the same year or time period.
    ::共同拥有共同财产的人,通常在同一年或同一期间出生。

    Commitment  Willingness of members of a group to do what is needed to maintain the group.
    ::集团成员愿意为维持集团而作出必要努力。

    Community  A collection of people in a geographical area; may also include the idea that the collection has a social structure and a sense of community spirit or belonging.
    ::社区集合一个地理区域的人民;还可能包括该集合有社会结构和社区精神或归属感的概念。

    Comparable worth  A policy of equal pay for men and women doing similar work, even if the jobs are labeled differently by sex.
    ::从事类似工作的男女同酬政策,即使这些工作有不同性别的标签。

    Competition  A goal-directed form of social interaction in which the goals or objects pursued are limited, so not all competitors can attain them. Competitive behavior is governed by rules and limitations (restraints) .
    ::竞争是一种以目标为导向的社会互动形式,在这种形式中,所追求的目标或目的受到限制,因此并非所有竞争者都能实现。 竞争行为受规则和限制(限制)制约。

    Complementary marriages  Marriages in which husband and wife take distinctly separate family roles.
    ::补充婚姻 夫妻在婚姻中各自承担不同的家庭角色。

    Concentric-zone theory  A theory of urban development holding that cities grow around a central business district in concentric zones, with each zone devoted to a different land use.
    ::城市发展理论认为,城市在同心区的中央商业区周围增长,每个区都致力于不同的土地使用。

    Concept  A formal definition of what is being studied.
    ::正在研究的内容的正式定义。

    Conflict  A form of social interaction involving direct struggle between individuals or groups over commonly valued resources or goals. Differs from competition because individuals are more interested in defeating an opponent than in achieving a goal.
    ::冲突是一种社会互动形式,涉及个人或群体之间就共同价值的资源或目标进行直接斗争,不同于竞争,因为个人更关心击败对手而不是实现目标。

    Conflict approach  One of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology: emphasizes the importance of unequal power and conflict in society.  Weberian conflict theorists  stress inequality and conflict based on class, status, power; Marxian theorists  emphasize conflict and inequality based on ownership of the means of production.
    ::社会学的主要理论观点之一:强调不平等权力和社会冲突的重要性。 Weberian冲突理论家强调基于阶级、地位、权力的不平等和冲突;Marxian理论家强调基于生产手段所有权的冲突和不平等。

    Conformity  Going along with the norms or behaviors of a group.
    ::符合一个团体的规范或行为。

    Conjugal family  A form of family organization centered around the husband-wife relationship rather than around blood relationships.
    ::家庭组织的形式以夫妻关系而不是血缘关系为中心。

    Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (CMSA)  A "supercity" with more than one million people. There were 21 such cities in the United States in 1984.
    ::综合都市统计区(CMSA)是一个拥有100多万人的“超级城市”,1984年,美国有21个这样的城市。

    Contact hypothesis  The theory that people of different racial groups who became acquainted would be less prejudiced toward one another.
    ::接触假设:不同种族群体的人认识后相互偏见较少的理论。

    Contagion theory  Le Bon's theory that the anonymity people feel in a crowd makes them susceptible to the suggestions of fanatical leaders, and that emotions can sweep through such a crowd like a virus.
    ::Le Bon的理论认为,人们在人群中感到匿名, 使得他们容易受到狂热领袖们的建议的影响, 情绪可以像病毒一样在人群中扫荡。

    Content analysis  A research method used to describe and analyze in an objective and systematic way the content of literature, speeches, or other media presentations. The method helps to identify cultural themes or trends.
    ::用于客观和系统地描述和分析文献、演讲或其他媒体演讲内容的研究方法,有助于确定文化主题或趋势。

    Content of socialization  The ideas, beliefs, values, knowledge, and so forth that are presented to people who are being socialized.
    ::思想、信仰、价值观、知识等等,向正在社会化的人们介绍。

    Contest mobility  The educational pattern in which selection for academic and university education is delayed and children compete throughout their schooling for high positions.
    ::学术和大学教育的选拔被推迟,儿童在整个学习期间竞争高级职位的教育模式。

    Context of socialization  The setting or arena within which socialization occurs.
    ::社会化背景 社会化的环境或场所。

    Continued subjugation  The use of force and ideology by one group to retain domination over another group.
    ::一个集团使用武力和意识形态以保持对另一个集团的统治。

    Control group  A group that is not exposed to the independent variable of interest to a researcher but whose members' backgrounds and experience are otherwise like those of the experimental group that is exposed to the independent variable.
    ::受研究者感兴趣的独立变量影响但其成员的背景和经验与受该独立变量影响的试验组背景和经验相似的集团。

    Controlling for  In research, the effort to hold constant factors that might be influencing observed changes in the dependent variable.
    ::在研究中,努力保持可能影响到从属变量所观察到的变化的常数因素。

    Convergence theory  A theory suggesting that modernizing nations come to resemble one another over time. In collective behavior, a theory suggesting that certain crowds attract particular types of people, who may behave irrationally.
    ::趋同理论 — — 一个暗示国家现代化随着时间推移而变得相似的理论。 在集体行为中,一个暗示某些人群吸引特定类型人群的理论,他们可能行为不理性。

    Cooperation  A form of social interaction involving collaborative effort among people to achieve a common goal.
    ::合作是一种社会互动形式,涉及人民为实现共同目标而协力合作。

    Cooptation  A social process by which people who might otherwise threaten the stability or existence of an organization are brought into the leadership or policy-making structure of that organization.
    ::腐败是一种社会过程,通过这种社会过程,本来可能威胁一个组织的稳定或存在的人被带入该组织的领导或决策结构。

    Correlation  An observed association between a change in the value of one variable and a change in the value of another variable.
    ::观察到一个变量值变化与另一个变量值变化之间的关联。

    Counterculture  A subculture whose norms and values sharply contradict the dominant norms and values of the society in which it occurs.
    ::一种次文化,其规范和价值观与它所在社会的主导规范和价值观大相径庭。

    Creationism  A theory that sees all major types of living things, including people, as having been made by the direct creative action of God in six days.
    ::一种理论 认为所有主要的 生命类型, 包括人, 是由上帝在六天内 直接的创造性行动所创造的。

    Credential  The educational degree or certificate used to determine a person's eligibility for a position.
    ::用来确定一个人是否有资格获得职位的教育学位或证书。

    Crime  A behavior prohibited by law.
    ::法律禁止的行为

    Criminal law  Law enacted by recognized political authorities that prohibits or requires certain behaviors.
    ::由公认的政治当局颁布的刑法禁止或要求某些行为。

    Criteria for inferring causality  Evidence that two variables are correlated and that the hypothesized cause preceded the hypothesized effect in time, as well as evidence eliminating rival hypotheses.
    ::推断因果关系的标准 证据 证明两个变量相关,假设原因先于时间假设效果,以及证据消除了对立假设。

    Crude birth rate  The total number of live births per 1000 persons in a population within a particular year.
    ::特定年份内每1 000人中每1 000人活产的总数。

    Crude death rate  The number of deaths per 1000 persons occurring within a one-year period in a particular population.
    ::某一人口在一年内每1 000人中死亡的人数。

    Cult  An organized group of people who together act out religious feelings, attitudes, and relationships; may focus on an unusual form of worship or belief.
    ::一群有组织的人一起行动,表达宗教感情、态度和关系;他们可能专注于一种不寻常的礼拜或信仰形式。

    Cultural capital  Symbolic wealth socially defined as worthy of being sought and possessed.
    ::被社会定义为值得追求和拥有的文化资本象征财富。

    Cultural change  Modifications or transformations of a culture's customs, values, ideas, or artifacts.
    ::文化变革 改变或改变文化的习俗、价值观、思想或文物。

    Cultural determinism  The view that the nature of a society is shaped primarily by the ideas and values of the people living in it.
    ::认为一个社会的性质主要由生活在其中的人的思想和价值观决定的观点。

    Cultural division of labor  A situation in which a person's place in the occupational world is determined by his or her cultural markers (such as ethnicity).
    ::一个人在职业世界中的地位取决于他或她的文化标志(如族裔)的情况。

    Cultural imposition  The forcing of members of one culture to adopt the practices of another culture.
    ::强迫一种文化的成员采用另一种文化的做法。

    Cultural relativism  The view that the customs and ideas of a society must be viewed within the context of that society.
    ::认为社会习俗和思想必须结合社会背景来看待的观点。

    Cultural revolution  The repudiation of many existing cultural elements and the substitution of new ones.
    ::文化革命 -- -- 摒弃许多现有的文化因素,取代新的文化因素。

    Cultural universals  Cultural features, such as the use of language, shared by all human societies.
    ::所有人类社会共有的文化特征,例如语言的使用。

    Culture  The common heritage shared by the people of a society, consisting of customs, values, language, ideas, and artifacts.
    ::文化是社会人民共有的共同遗产,由习俗、价值观、语言、思想和艺术品组成。

    Culture lag  The time difference between the introduction of material innovations and resulting changes in cultural practices.
    ::引入物质创新与随之而来的文化习俗变化之间的时间差在文化上是滞后的。

    Culture of poverty  A distinctive culture thought to develop among poor people and characterized by failure to delay gratification, fatalism, and weak family and community ties.
    ::一种在穷人中发展的独特文化,其特点是不能推迟满足感、宿命论以及家庭和社区联系薄弱。

    Culture pattern theory  In the sociology of sport, a theory that explains aggression and violence in sport as learned behavior that mirrors the degree of aggression and violence in the society.
    ::在体育的社会学中, 将体育中的侵略和暴力解释为学习行为, 反映社会上侵略和暴力的程度。

    Cyclical theories  Theories of social change suggesting that societies follow a certain life course, from vigorous and innovative youth to more materialistic maturity and then to decline.
    ::世俗理论 社会变革理论 表明社会遵循一定的生活过程 从充满活力和创新性的青年 到更富于物质性的成熟 然后衰落

    Deduction  Reasoning from the general to the specific.
    ::从一般理由到具体理由。

    Defining the situation  The socially created perspective that people apply to a situation.
    ::社会所创造的、人们适用于某种情况的观点。

    Democracy  A form of political organization in which power resides with the people and is exercised by them.
    ::民主是一种政治组织形式,人民拥有权力,人民行使权力。

    Democratic-collective organization  An organization in which authority is placed in the group as a whole, rules are minimized, members have considerable control over their work, and job differentiation is minimized.
    ::将权力置于整个集团中的组织,其规则最小化,成员对其工作拥有相当大的控制权,工作差别也最小化。

    Demographic transition  The demographic change experienced in Western Europe and North America since the industrial revolution in which the birth rate has declined so that it is about equal to the death rate.
    ::人口结构转型 西欧和北美自工业革命以来人口结构的变化,在工业革命中出生率下降,与死亡率大致相等。

    Demography  The scientific study of population size, composition, and distribution as well as patterns of change in those features.
    ::关于人口规模、组成和分布以及这些特征变化模式的科学研究。

    Denomination  One of a number of religious organizations in a society with no official state church. Has some formal doctrines, beliefs, and practices, but tolerates diverse religious views.
    ::在一个没有官方国家教会的社会中,许多宗教组织之一被提名。 有一些正式的理论、信仰和做法,但容忍不同的宗教观点。

    Dependency theory  A theory about the place of developing nations in the world economy suggesting that major industrial nations take advantage of the cheap labor and raw materials of developing nations and hence are reluctant to see them become industrialized.
    ::关于发展中国家在世界经济中的地位的理论表明,主要工业国家利用发展中国家廉价的劳动力和原材料,因此不愿意看到它们成为工业化国家。

    Dependent variable  The variable that occurs or changes in a patterned way due to the presence of, or changes in, another variable or variables.
    ::由于另一个变量或变量的存在或变化而以典型方式发生或改变的变量。

    Descriptive study  A research study whose goal is to describe the social phenomena being studied.
    ::一项旨在描述所研究的社会现象的研究。

    Deskilling  The process of breaking down jobs into less complex segments that require less knowledge and judgment on the part of workers.
    ::将工作分成需要工人较少知识和判断的较不复杂的部分的过程。

    Deterrence theory  The view that certain qualities of punishment-- such as certainty, swiftness, and severity-- will help prevent others from committing crimes that have been so punished.
    ::认为某些惩罚的品质,如确定性、迅速性和严厉性,将有助于防止他人犯下受到如此惩罚的罪行。

    Deviance  Behaviors or characteristics that violate important social norms.
    ::违反重要社会规范的偏离行为或特征。

    Deviant career  The regular pursuit of activities regarded by the individual and by others as deviant.
    ::经常从事被个人和其他人视为异常的活动。

    Differential association  A theory that attributes the existence of deviant behavior to learning from friends or associates.
    ::一种将异常行为的存在归结于 向朋友或合伙人学习的理论

    Differentiation, functional  The division of labor or of social roles within a society or an organization.
    ::社会或组织内部的劳动分工或社会角色分工。

    Differentiation, rank  The unequal placement and evaluation of various social positions.
    ::不同社会地位的不平等安置和评估。

    Diffusion  The spread of inventions and discoveries from one group or culture to another on a voluntary basis; a source of cultural change.
    ::传播一个群体或文化在自愿基础上向另一个群体或文化传播发明和发现;这是文化变革的一个来源。

    Discovery  The uncovering of something that existed but was unknown; a source of cultural change.
    ::发现某种存在但未知的东西,即文化变革的源头。

    Discrimination  The unequal and unfair treatment of individuals or groups on the basis of some irrelevant characteristic, such as race, ethnicity, religion, sex, or social class.
    ::基于种族、族裔、宗教、性别或社会阶级等一些不相干的特点,对个人或群体的不平等和不公平待遇。

    Division of labor  The assignment of specialized tasks to various members of a group, organization, community, or society.
    ::将专门任务分配给一个团体、组织、社区或社会的不同成员。

    Dominant status  One social position that overshadows the other social positions an individual occupies.
    ::1个社会地位,掩盖了个人占据的其他社会地位。

    Domination The  control of one group or individual by another.
    ::控制一个群体或个人,由另一个群体或个人控制。

    Double standard  A set of social norms that allows males greater freedom of sexual expression, particularly before marriage, than females.
    ::一套社会规范允许男性享有比女性更大的性表达自由,特别是在婚前。

    Dramaturgical analysis  An approach to social situations developed by Erving Goffman in which they are examined as though they were theatrical productions.
    ::Erving Goffman开发的处理社会状况的方法,在这种方法中,他们被检查为像戏剧作品一样的戏剧作品。

    Dual-career families  Families in which both husband and wife have careers.
    ::夫妻双方都有职业的家庭。

    Dual-career responsibilities  The responsibilities of women who are wives as well as workers‹ often used to explain why women earn less.
    ::作为妻子和工人的妇女的责任经常用来解释为什么妇女的收入较少。

    Dual economy  The conceptual division of the private sector of the economy into monopoly (core) and competitive (periphery) sectors.
    ::经济的私营部门在概念上分为垄断(核心)和竞争性(外围)部门。

    Dyad  A group composed of two people.                 
    ::由两个人组成的一个小组

    Dysfunction  Any consequence of a social system that disturbs or hinders the integration, adjustment, or stability of the system.
    ::社会制度扰乱或阻碍社会制度的融合、调整或稳定的任何后果。

    Ecological paradigm  A theory of land use and living patterns that examines the interplay among economic functions, geographical factors, demography, and the replacement of one group by another.
    ::一种土地使用和生活模式理论,研究经济功能、地理因素、人口和以另一群体取代另一群体之间的相互作用。

    Ecological succession  In urban sociology, the replacement of one group by another over time.
    ::在城市社会学中,一个群体随着时间的推移被另一个群体取代。

    Ecological view  An approach to the study of culture or other social phenomena that emphasizes the importance of examining climate, food and water supplies, and existing enemies in the environments.
    ::研究文化或其他社会现象的方法,强调审查气候、食物和水供应以及环境内现有敌人的重要性。

    Ecology  The scientific study of how organisms relate to one another and to their environments.
    ::生态科学研究,探讨生物体彼此之间及其环境之间的关系。

    Economic core  The sector of the economy characterized by large, generally very profitable, oligopolistic firms that are national or multinational in scope; also called the monopoly sector.
    ::经济核心 经济部门的特点是大型、一般利润丰厚的寡头垄断企业,这些企业在范围上属于国家或多国,也称为垄断部门。

    Economic growth  An increase in the amount of goods and services produced with the same amount of labor and resources.
    ::以同样的劳动力和资源数量生产的货物和服务数量增加。

    Economic institution  The pattern of roles, norms, and activities organized around the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services in a society.
    ::经济体制 作用模式、规范和围绕社会商品和服务的生产、分配和消费组织的活动。

    Economic periphery  The sector of the economy characterized by small, local, barely profitable firms; also called the competitive sector.
    ::经济部门的特点是小的、地方的、几乎没有利润的公司,也称为有竞争力的部门。

    Ecosystem  A system formed by the interaction of a community of organisms with its environment.
    ::生态系统系统是由生物群与其环境相互作用形成的。

    Education  The process, in school or beyond, of transmitting a society's knowledge, skills, values, and behaviors.
    ::在学校内外传播社会知识、技能、价值观和行为的教育过程。

    Egalitarian marriage  A family in which husband and wife share equally in family decision making.
    ::夫妻在家庭决策中平等分享的家庭。

    Ego  In Freudian theory, a concept referring to the conscious, rational part of the personality structure, which mediates between the impulses of the id and the rules of society.
    ::Ego In Freudian理论,这一概念提到个性结构的自觉和理性部分,它介于身份的冲动和社会规则之间。

    Elderly dependency ratio  The ratio between the number of the elderly (65 and over) and the number of working-age people (ages 18 to 64).
    ::老年人受抚养人比率 老年人(65岁及65岁以上)与工作年龄人口(18至64岁)的比率。

    Emergent norm theory  A theory of collective behavior suggesting that people move to form a shared definition of the situation in relatively normless situations.
    ::一种集体行为理论 暗示人们在相对无规范的情况下 对形势形成共同的定义

    Emotion work  An individual's effort to change an emotion or feeling to one that seems to be more appropriate to a given situation.
    ::一个人试图改变一种情绪或感觉, 改变一种似乎更适合特定情况的情绪或感觉。

    Equilibrium  In functionalist theory, the view that the parts of a society fit together into a balanced whole.
    ::在功能论理论中,认为社会各部分合而为一,形成一个平衡的整体。

    Ethnic group  A group that shares a common cultural tradition and sense of identity.
    ::一个具有共同文化传统和认同感的群体。

    Ethnocentrism  The tendency to see one's own culture as superior to all others.
    ::有一种倾向认为,一个人自己的文化比所有其他文化优越。

    Ethnography  A detailed study based on actual observation of the way of life of a human group or society.
    ::根据对某一人类群体或社会生活方式的实际观察进行的详细研究。

    Ethnomethodology  The study of the methods used by individuals to communicate and make sense of their everyday lives as members of society. Many ethnomethodologists focus on the study of language and everyday conversation.
    ::研究个人作为社会成员交流和理解其日常生活的方法,许多人种学专家着重研究语言和日常对话。

    Evangelicalism  A form of Protestantism that stresses the preaching of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the validity of personal conversion, the Bible as the basis for belief, and active preaching of the faith.
    ::一种强调耶稣基督福音传道、个人皈依的有效性、作为信仰基础的《圣经》以及积极宣扬信仰的新教的新教形式。

    Evolutionary theories  Theories of social change that see societies as evolving from simpler forms to more complex ones. In biology, the theory that living organisms develop new traits that may aid their adaptation or survival.
    ::社会变化的理论理论认为社会正在从更简单的形式演变为更复杂的形式。 在生物学中,活生物体发展出有助于其适应或生存的新特征的理论。

    Exchange  A form of social interaction involving trade of tangibles (objects) or intangibles (sentiments) between individuals.
    ::一种涉及个人之间有形(目标)或无形(抵押)贸易的社会互动交流形式。

    Exchange theory  An interpretive perspective that explains social interaction on the basis of the exchange of various tangible or intangible social rewards.
    ::一种解释性观点,根据各种有形或无形社会回报的交流来解释社会互动。

    Experiment  A carefully controlled situation where the independent variable is manipulated while everything else remains the same; the aim is to see whether the dependent variable will change.
    ::试验一种谨慎控制的情况,即独立变量被操纵,而其他所有变量保持不变;目的是看看依赖变量的变量是否会改变。

    Experimental group  In research, the group of individuals exposed to the independent variable that is being introduced by the experimenter.
    ::在研究中,接触实验者正在引入的独立变量的个人群体。

    Explanatory study  A research study with the goal of explaining how or why things happen the way they do in the social world.
    ::一项研究,目的是解释事情是如何或为什么发生的,就像他们在社会上所做的那样。

    Expressive  A type of role that involves the showing of emotional feelings or preferences in interpersonal relationships.
    ::在人际关系中表现出情感或偏好的一种表现作用。

    Expressive leader  A group leader whose role in the group is to help maintain stability through joking, mediating conflicts, and otherwise reducing tension.
    ::一个团体领导人,其在该团体中的作用是通过玩弄、调解冲突或以其他方式缓和紧张局势,帮助维持稳定。

    Extended family  A family in which relatives from several generations live together.
    ::一个多代亲属共同生活的大家庭。

    Face-work  A term used by Goffman to refer to the actions taken by individuals to make their behavior appear consistent with the image they want to present.
    ::Goffman用这个术语来形容个人为使其行为看起来符合他们想要展示的形象而采取的行动。

    Fads  Striking behaviors that spread rapidly and that, even though embraced enthusiastically, remain popular for only a short time.
    ::迅速传播的,尽管热情地接受,但短期内仍然受到欢迎的 令人厌恶的行为。

    Family  Two or more persons who are related by blood, marriage, adoption, or serious long-term commitment to each other, and who live together. They usually form an economic unit, and adult members care for the dependent children.
    ::由于血缘、婚姻、收养、或对彼此的严肃的长期承诺而有两名或两名以上亲属,他们共同生活,通常组成一个经济单位,成年成员照顾受抚养的子女。

    Fashion  A socially approved but temporary style of appearance or behavior.
    ::时尚A 社会认可 但暂时的外观或行为风格。

    Flow  An experience of total involvement in one's present activity.
    ::全面参与当前活动的经验。

    Folkways  Social norms to which people generally conform, although they receive little pressure to do so.
    ::人们一般都遵守的社会规范,尽管他们几乎没有受到什么压力这样做。

    Formal organizations  Highly structured groups with specific objectives and usually clearly stated rules and regulations.
    ::结构严密的团体,有具体目标,通常有明确规定的规则和条例。

    Formal sanction  A social reward or punishment that is administered in an organized, systematic way, such as receiving a diploma or getting a fine.
    ::以有组织、系统的方式实施的社会奖励或惩罚,如获得文凭或罚款。

    Functional approach  A theoretical approach that analyzes social phenomena in terms of their functions in a social system.
    ::一种理论方法,根据社会制度中的社会现象的功能来分析社会现象。

    Functional equivalent  A feature or process in society that has the same function (consequence) as some other feature or process
    ::与其他一些特征或进程具有相同功能(后果)的社会特征或进程

    Functions  The consequences of social phenomena for other parts of society or for society as a whole.
    ::社会现象对社会其他部分或整个社会的后果。

    Fundamentalism  A form of religious traditionalism characterized by the literal interpretation of religious texts, a conception of an active supernatural, and clear distinctions between sin and salvation.
    ::一种宗教传统主义形式,其特点是对宗教经文的字面解释,一种积极的超自然概念,以及罪恶和救赎之间的明确区分。

    Game  A form of play involving competitive or cooperative interaction in which the outcome is determined by physical skill, strength, strategy, or chance.
    ::游戏是一种涉及竞争性或合作性互动的游戏形式,其结果取决于实际技能、力量、策略或机会。

    Gemeinschaft  A term used by Tonnies to describe a small, traditional, community-centered society in which people have close, personal, face-to-face relationships and value social relationships as ends in themselves.
    ::Tonnies用Gemeinschaft这个术语来描述一个小型的、传统的、以社区为中心的社会,在这个社会中,人们有着密切的、个人的、面对面的关系,把社会关系当作目的来看待。

    Gender  The traits and behaviors that are socially designated as "masculine" or "feminine" in a particular society.
    ::特定社会中被社会定为“男性”或“女性”的性别特征和行为。

    Gender differences  Variations in the social positions, roles, behaviors, attitudes, and personalities of men and women in a society.
    ::社会上男女社会地位、角色、行为、态度和人格的差异。

    Gender gap  Differences in the way men and women vote.
    ::男女投票方式的差异。

    Gender-role expectations  People's beliefs about how men and women should behave.
    ::人们对男女应如何表现的信念。

    Gender stratification  The hierarchical ranking of men and women and their roles in terms of unequal ownership, power, social control, prestige, and social rewards.
    ::男女的等级分级及其在不平等所有权、权力、社会控制、威望和社会奖励方面的作用。

    Generalized other  A general idea of the expectations, attitudes, and values of a group or community.
    ::对群体或社区的期望、态度和价值观的一般看法。

    Genocide  The destruction of an entire population.
    ::种族灭绝毁灭了整个人口。

    Gentrification  The movement of middle-class and upper-middle-class persons (usually white) into lower-income, sometimes minority urban areas.
    ::中产阶级和中上阶级(通常是白人)向低收入、有时是少数民族城市地区流动。

    Gesellschaft  A term used by Tonnies to describe an urban industrial society in which people have impersonal, formal, contractual, and specialized relationships and tend to use social relationships as a means to an end.
    ::Tonnies用Gesellschaft这个术语来描述一个城市工业社会,在这个社会中,人们有着非人性、正式、契约和专业的关系,并往往利用社会关系作为达到目的的手段。

    Global economy  An economy in which the economic life and health of one nation depends on what happens in other nations.
    ::一个经济,其中一国的经济生活和健康取决于其他国家的情况。

    Green revolution  The improvement in agricultural production based on higher-yielding grains and increased use of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation.
    ::绿色革命 以高产谷物为基础改善农业生产,增加肥料、杀虫剂和灌溉的使用。

    Groups  Collections of people who share some common goals and norms and whose relationships are usually based on interactions.
    ::拥有一些共同目标和规范,其关系通常以互动为基础的人群群集。

    Groupthink  The tendency of individuals to follow the ideas or actions of a group.
    ::团体思考个人倾向于遵循团体的想法或行动。

    Health maintenance organizations (HMOs)  Organizations that people pay a fee to join in return for access to a range of health services.
    ::保健维护组织(HMOs)组织,如果人们为加入组织付费,以换取获得一系列保健服务。

    Heterosexual  A person whose preferred partner for erotic, emotional, and sexual interaction is someone of the opposite sex.
    ::性欲异性者,其性欲、情感和性交往的优先伴侣是异性者。

    Hierarchy  The arrangement of positions in a rank order, with those below reporting to those above.
    ::按级别排列职位,以下各级向上述各级报告。

    Hispanics  A general term referring to Spanish-speaking persons. It includes many distinct ethnic groups.
    ::西班牙语的一般术语,包括许多不同的族裔群体。

    Homosexual  Someone who is emotionally, erotically, and physically attracted to persons of his or her own sex.
    ::情感上、色情上和身体上被自己性别的人所吸引的同性恋者。

    Horizontal mobility  Movement from one social status to another of about equal rank in the social hierarchy.
    ::横向流动:从一个社会地位向另一个社会地位的移动,在社会等级体系中地位大致相等。

    Horticultural societies  Societies in which the cultivation of plants with hoes is the primary means of subsistence.
    ::以养蜂为主要生存手段的种植植物的社会。

    Hospice  An organization designed to provide care and comfort for terminally ill persons and their families.
    ::一家旨在为临终病人及其家人提供护理和安慰的组织。

    Human-capital explanation  The view that the earnings of different workers vary because of differences in their education or experience.
    ::认为不同工人的收入因教育或经验的不同而不同。

    Hunting and gathering societies  Societies that obtain food by hunting animals, fishing, and gathering fruits, nuts, and grains. These societies do not plant crops or have domesticated animals.
    ::通过狩猎动物、捕鱼和采摘水果、坚果和谷物获得食物的社会,这些社会不种植作物或养殖动物。

    Hybrid economy  An economic system that blends features of both centrally planned and capitalist (market) economies.
    ::混合中央计划和资本主义(市场)经济的经济体系。

    Hyperinflation  Anextreme form of inflation.       
    ::通货膨胀的极端形式。

    Hypothesis  A tentative statement asserting a relationship between one factor and something else (based on theory, prior research, or general observation).
    ::暂定声明,申明一个因素与其他因素(根据理论、先前的研究或一般性意见)之间的关系。

    Id  In Freudian theory, a concept referring to the unconscious instinctual impulses-- for instance, sexual or aggressive impulses.
    ::在弗洛伊德理论中,一个概念 指无意识本能冲动-- 比如性或攻击性冲动。

    Ideal values  Values that people say are important to them, whether or not their behavior supports those values.
    ::人们说的价值观对他们很重要, 不论他们的行为是否支持这些价值观。

    Identification theories  Views suggesting that children learn gender roles by identifying with and copying the same-sex parent.
    ::意见表明,儿童通过与同性父母确定身份和复制同性父母来学习性别角色。

    Ideology  A system of ideas that reflects, rationalizes, and defends the interests of those who believe in it.
    ::一种思想体系 反映,合理化, 并捍卫 相信它的人的利益。

    Impression management  A term used by Goffman to describe the efforts of individuals to influence how others perceive them.
    ::Goffman用这个词来描述个人如何努力影响他人如何看待他们。

    Incest  Sexual intercourse with close family members.
    ::与近亲性交。

    Incest taboo  The prohibition of sexual intercourse between fathers and daughters, mothers and sons, and brothers and sisters.
    ::禁止父亲和女儿、母亲和儿子以及兄弟姐妹之间发生性关系。

    Income  The sum of money wages and salaries (earnings) plus income other than earnings.
    ::收入 货币工资和薪金(收入)加收入以外的收入。

    Independent variable The  variable whose occurrence or change results in the occurrence or change of another variable; the hypothesized cause of something else.
    ::独立的变量 发生或变化导致另一个变量发生或变化的变量; 其它变量的假设原因 。

    Individualism  A belief in individual rights and responsibilities.
    ::对个人权利和责任的信念。

    Induction  Reasoning from the particular to the general.
    ::由特定物向一般物说明理由。

    Industrialization  The shift within a nation's economy from a primarily agricultural base to a manufacturing base.
    ::一国经济从主要是农业基础向制造业基础的转变。

    Industrialized societies  Societies that rely on mechanized production, rather than on human or animal labor, as the primary means of subsistence.
    ::依靠机械化生产而不是依靠人或动物劳动作为主要生存手段的社会。

    Inflation  An increase in the supply of money in circulation that exceeds the rate of economic growth, making money worth less in relation to the goods and services it can buy.
    ::流通货币供应的增加超过经济增长率,使货币与其所能购买的货物和服务相比价值降低。

    Informal sanction  A social reward or punishment that is given informally through social interaction, such as an approving smile or a disapproving frown.
    ::非正式制裁 一种社会奖励或惩罚,通过社会互动非正式地给予,如认可笑容或不满的皱眉。

    Innovation  The discovery or invention of new ideas, things, or methods; a source of cultural change.
    ::创新:发现或发明新的思想、事物或方法;文化变革的源头。

    Instinct  A genetically determined behavior triggered by specific conditions or events.
    ::由特定条件或事件引发的遗传决定的行为。

    Institution of science  The social communities that share certain theories and methods aimed at understanding the physical and social worlds.
    ::分享某些理论和方法的社会群体,目的是了解物质和社会世界。

    Institutionalization of science  The establishment of careers for practicing scientists in major social institutions.
    ::使科学制度化 在主要社会机构中为从事实践的科学家开创职业。

    Institutionalized  Social practices that have become established, patterned, and predictable and that are supported by custom, tradition, and/or law.
    ::制度化的社会做法已经确立、模式化和可预测,并受到习俗、传统和/或法律的支持。

    Institutions  The patterned and enduring roles, statuses, and norms that have formed around successful strategies for meeting basic social needs.
    ::围绕满足基本社会需要的成功战略形成的典型和持久的作用、地位和规范。

    Instrumental  A type of role that involves problem-solving or task-oriented behavior in group or interpersonal relationships.
    ::一种作用,涉及在群体或人际关系中解决问题或注重任务的行为。

    Instrumental leader  A group leader whose role is to keep the group's attention directed to the task at hand.
    ::一个小组组长,其作用是使小组注意眼前的任务。

    Interest group  A group of people who work to influence political decisions affecting them.
    ::一群努力影响影响他们的政治决策的人。

    Intergenerational mobility  A vertical change of social status from one generation to the next.
    ::社会地位从一代向下一代的纵向变化。

    Interlocking directorates  The practice of overlapping memberships on corporate boards of directors.
    ::公司董事会成员重叠的做法。

    Intermittent reinforcement  In learning theory, the provision of a reward sometimes but not always when a desired behavior is shown.
    ::在学习理论中,有时提供奖励,但并非总能显示想要的行为。

    Internalization  The process of taking social norms, roles, and values into one's own mind.
    ::将社会规范、角色和价值观融入自己思想的过程。

    Interpretive approach  One of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology; focuses on how individuals make sense of the world and react to the symbolic meanings attached to social life.
    ::解释性方法 社会学的主要理论观点之一;重点是个人如何理解世界,如何对社会生活的象征意义作出反应。

    Intragenerational mobility  A vertical change of social status experienced by an individual within his or her own lifetime.
    ::个人在其一生中经历的社会地位的纵向变化。

    Invention  An innovation in material or nonmaterial culture, often produced by combining existing cultural elements in new ways; a source of cultural change.
    ::物质文化或非物质文化的创新,往往通过以新的方式结合现有文化要素而产生;文化变革的源头。

    "I" portion of the self  In George Herbert Mead's view, the spontaneous or impulsive portion of the self.
    ::在乔治·赫伯特·米德看来,自我的“我”部分, 自我自发或冲动的部分。

    IQ (intelligence quotient) test  A standardized set of questions or problems designed to measure verbal and numerical knowledge and reasoning.
    ::IQ(情报商数)测试 一套标准化的问题或问题,旨在衡量口头和数字知识和推理。

    "Iron law of oligarchy"  In Robert Michels' view, the idea that power in an organization tends to become concentrated in the hands of a small group of leaders.
    ::罗伯特·米歇尔斯认为,一个组织的权力往往集中在一小撮领导人手中。

    Keynesian economics  The economic theory advanced by John Maynard Keynes, which holds that government intervention, through deficit spending, may be necessary to maintain high levels of employment.
    ::John Maynard Keynes提出的经济理论认为,政府通过赤字支出进行干预,对于保持高水平的就业可能是必要的。

    Kinship  Socially defined family relationships, including those based on common parentage, marriage, or adoption.
    ::社会界定的家庭关系,包括基于共同亲子关系、婚姻或收养的家庭关系。

    Labeling theory  A theory of deviance that focuses on the process by which some people are labeled deviant by other people (and thus take on deviant identities) rather than on the nature of the behavior itself.
    ::一种偏差理论, 重点是某些人被他人贴上变异标签的过程(并因此接受异常身份), 而不是行为本身的性质。

    Labor-market segmentation  The existence of two or more distinct labor markets, one of which is open only to individuals of a particular gender or ethnicity.
    ::存在两个或两个以上不同的劳动力市场,其中之一只对特定性别或族裔的个人开放。

    Laissez-faire economics  The economic theory advanced by Adam Smith, which holds that the economic system develops and functions best when left to market forces, without government intervention.
    ::亚当·史密斯提出的经济理论认为,经济体系在任由市场力量支配、不受政府干预的情况下发展并发挥最佳功能。

    Language  Spoken or written symbols combined into a system and governed by rules.
    ::语言或书面符号合并为一个系统,并受规则制约。

    Latent function  The unintended and/or unrecognized function or consequence of some thing or process in a social system.
    ::社会制度中某些事物或过程的意外和/或未经承认的功能或后果。

    Law  The system of formalized rules established by political authorities and backed by the power of the state for the purpose of controlling or regulating social behavior.
    ::法律 由政治当局制定并由国家权力支持的正规规则体系,目的是控制或管理社会行为。

    Learning theory  In psychology, the theory that specific human behaviors are acquired or forgotten as a result of the rewards or punishments associated with them.
    ::在心理学中,一种理论认为,特定人类行为由于与这些行为相关的奖赏或惩罚而获得或被遗忘。

    Legal protection  The protection of minority-group members through the official policy of a governing unit.
    ::通过管理机构的官方政策保护少数群体成员。

    Legitimate  In reference to power, the sense by people in a situation that those who are exercising power have the right to do so.
    ::在权力方面,人民认为行使权力的人有权行使权力。

    Lesbian  A woman who is emotionally, erotically, and physically attracted to other women.
    ::女同性恋者是一名情感、色情和身体上被其他妇女吸引的妇女。

    Life chances  The probabilities of an individual having access to or failing to have access to various opportunities or difficulties in society.
    ::个人有机会获得或未能获得社会上的各种机会或困难的可能性。

    Life course  The biological and social sequence of birth, growing up, maturity, aging, and death.
    ::生命过程 出生、成长、成熟、老龄化和死亡的生物和社会序列

    Life-course analysis  An examination of the ways in which different stages of life influence socialization and behavior.
    ::研究生活不同阶段影响社交和行为的方式。

    Life expectancy  The average years of life anticipated for people born in a particular year.
    ::在特定年份出生的人预计的平均寿命。

    Life-style  Family, child-bearing, and educational attitudes and practices; personal values; type of residence; consumer, political, and civic behavior; religion.
    ::生活方式家庭、生育、教育态度和做法;个人价值观;居住类型;消费者、政治和公民行为;宗教。

    Life table  A statistical table that presents the death rate and life expectancy of each of a series of age-sex categories for a particular population.
    ::一份统计表,其中列出特定人口的一系列年龄-性别类别中的每一个类别的死亡率和预期寿命。

    Line job  A job that is part of the central operations of an organization rather than one that provides support services for the operating structure.
    ::工作是一个组织中央业务的一部分,而不是为业务结构提供支助服务的工作。

    Lobbying  The process of trying to influence political decisions so they will be favorable to one's interests and goals.
    ::试图影响政治决策,从而有利于个人利益和目标的进程。

    Location  In Kanter's view, a person's position in an organization with respect to having control over decision making.
    ::Kanter认为,一个人在组织中控制决策的地位。

    Looking-glass self  The sense of self an individual derives from the way others view and treat him or her.
    ::一个人的自我意识来自他人看待和对待他或她的方式。

    Macro level  An analysis of societies that focuses on large-scale institutions, structures, and processes.
    ::以大规模机构、结构和进程为重点的社会分析。

    Magic  According to Malinowski, "a practical art consisting of acts which are only means to a definite end expected to follow."
    ::Malinowski认为,“一种实际的艺术, 由行为组成,

    Manifest function  The intended function or consequence of some thing or process in a social system.
    ::社会制度中某些事物或过程的预期功能或后果。

    Marriage  A social institution that recognizes and approves the sexual union of two or more individuals and includes a set of mutual rights and obligations.
    ::婚姻社会机构承认并认可两个或两个以上个人的性结合,包括一系列相互权利和义务。

    Marriage rate  Number of marriages in a year per 1000 single women 15 to 44 years old.
    ::每1 000名15至44岁的单身妇女中一年的结婚人数。

    Marriage squeeze  A situation in which the eligible individuals of one sex outnumber the supply of potential marriage partners of the other sex.
    ::婚姻挤压一种情况,一种性别的合格个人人数超过另一种性别的潜在婚姻伴侣的供应。

    Marxian approach  A theory that uses the ideas of Karl Marx and stresses the importance of class struggle centered around the social relations of economic production.
    ::运用卡尔马克思思想的理论,强调围绕经济生产的社会关系进行阶级斗争的重要性。

    Mass hysteria  Widely felt fear and anxiety.
    ::大规模歇斯底里的歇斯底里 广泛感受到恐惧和焦虑

    Mass media  Widely disseminated forms of communication, such as books, magazines, radio, television, and movies.
    ::广泛传播各种传播形式,如书籍、杂志、广播、电视和电影。

    Matthew effect  The social process whereby one advantage an individual has is likely to lead to additional advantages.
    ::Matthew 影响社会过程, 一个人的优势之一 可能导致额外的优势。

    Mean, arithmetic  The sum of a set of mathematical values divided by the number of values; a measure of central tendency in a series of data.
    ::一组数学数值之和除以数值数; 一系列数据中中心趋势的度量。

    Median  The number that cuts a distribution of figures in half; a positional measure of central tendency in a series of data.
    ::将数字分布减半的数字,即一系列数据中中心趋势的定位衡量标准,作为中间值。

    Medicaid  A federal-state matching program that provides medical assistance to certain low income persons.
    ::联邦-州匹配方案,向某些低收入者提供医疗援助。

    Medicare  A federal health insurance program. Individuals are eligible if they receive Social Security benefits, federal disability benefits, or sometimes if they have end-stage kidney disease.
    ::医疗保险联邦健康保险方案:个人如果获得社会保障福利、联邦残疾福利,或有时患有晚期肾病,则有资格获得这种福利。

    "Me" portion of the self  In George Herbert Mead's view, the portion of the self that brings the influence of others into the individual's consciousness.
    ::在乔治·赫伯特·米德看来,自我的“我”部分, 自我的“我”部分, 将他人的影响 带入个人的意识。

    Method of comparison  An approach that compares one subgroup or society with another one for the purpose of understanding social differences.
    ::为了解社会差异而将一个分组或社会与另一个分组或社会进行比较的方法。

    Methodology  The rules, principles, and practices that guide the collection of evidence and the conclusions drawn from it.
    ::指导证据收集及其结论的规则、原则和做法。

    Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA)  A geographical area containing either one city with 50,000 or more residents or an urban area of at least 50,000 inhabitants and a total population of at least 100,000 (except in New England where the required total is 75,000).
    ::首都统计区(MSA)是一个地理区域,包括一个拥有50 000人或50 000人以上的城市,或至少拥有50 000人、总人口至少100 000人的城市地区(新英格兰除外,那里需要的总数为75 000人)。

    Micro level  An analysis of societies that focuses on small-scale process, such as how individuals interact and how they attach meanings to the social actions of others.
    ::分析侧重于小规模过程的社会,例如个人如何互动以及他们如何赋予他人的社会行动以意义。

    Migration  The relatively permanent movement of people from one area to another.
    ::人口从一个地区到另一个地区的相对长期流动。

    Millenarian movements  Social movements based on the expectation that society will be suddenly transformed through supernatural intervention.
    ::社会运动是基于一种期望,即社会将通过超自然干预突然转变。

    Minority group  Any recognizable racial, religious, ethnic, or social group that suffers from some disadvantage resulting from the action of a dominant group with higher social status and greater privileges.
    ::任何得到承认的种族、宗教、族裔或社会群体,由于社会地位较高和享有更大特权的主导群体的行动而处于不利地位。

    Mode  The value that occurs most often in a series of mathematical values.
    ::模式 在一系列数学数值中最常出现的值 。

    Modeling  Copying the behavior of admired people.
    ::模仿受敬仰的人的行为

    Modernization  The economic and social transformation that occurs when a traditional agricultural society becomes highly industrialized.
    ::当传统的农业社会高度工业化时出现的经济和社会变革。

    Monopoly  The exclusive control of a particular industry, market, service, or commodity by a single organization.
    ::垄断 单一组织对某一特定行业、市场、服务或商品的专属控制。

    Mores  Strongly held social norms, a violation of which causes a sense of moral outrage.
    ::更强有力的社会规范,违反这种规范会引起道德上的愤慨。

    Mortality rate  The number of deaths per thousand in a population.
    ::死亡率:每千人中死亡的人数。

    Multinational corporation  A corporation that locates its operations in a number of nations.
    ::跨国公司 一家将业务设在若干国家的公司。

    Multiple-nuclei theory  A theory of urban development holding that cities develop around a number of different centers, each with its own special activities.
    ::城市发展理论 城市发展理论 认为城市围绕不同的中心发展 每一个中心都有自己的特殊活动

    Nation  A relatively autonomous political grouping that usually shares a common language and a particular geography.
    ::一个相对自治的政治团体,通常拥有共同语言和特定地理。

    Nation-state  A social organization in which political authority overlaps a cultural and geographical community.
    ::政治权力与文化和地理社区重叠的社会组织。

    Negative sanctions  Actions intended to deter or punish unwanted social behaviors.
    ::旨在阻止或惩罚不良社会行为的消极制裁行动。

    Negotiation  A form of social interaction in which two or more parties in conflict or competition arrive at a mutually satisfactory agreement.
    ::谈判是一种社会互动形式,冲突或竞争中两个或两个以上当事方在这种形式中达成相互满意的协议。

    Network  See  Social network.
    ::网络见社会网络。

    Nomadic  Societies that move their residences from place to place.
    ::将居住地从一个地方迁移到另一个地方的游牧社会。

    Nonverbal communication  Visual and other meaningful symbols that do not use language.
    ::视觉和不使用语言的其他有意义的符号。

    Norm  A shared rule about acceptable or unacceptable social behavior.
    ::对于可接受的或不可接受的社会行为,一个共同规则是不容置疑的。

    Normal science  A term used by Kuhn to describe research based on one or more past scientific achievements that are accepted as a useful foundation for further study.
    ::Kuhn用“普通科学”这一术语来描述基于一项或数项以往科学成就的研究,这些成果被接受为进一步研究的有益基础。

    Nuclear family  A family form consisting of a married couple and their children.
    ::由已婚夫妇及其子女组成的家庭形式。

    Objectivity  Procedures researchers follow to minimize distortions in observation or interpretation due to personal or social values.
    ::研究人员遵循的程序是为了尽量减少由于个人或社会价值观而在观察或解释方面的扭曲。

    Occupation  A position in the world of work that involves specialized knowledge and activities.
    ::在涉及专门知识和活动的工作世界中的地位。

    Occupational segregation  The concentration of workers by gender or ethnicity into certain jobs but not others.
    ::职业隔离 按性别或族裔划分的工人集中从事某些工作,但不集中从事其他工作。

    Oligarchy  The rule of the many by the few.
    ::少数人统治着多数人的统治

    Oligopoly  The control of a particular industry, market, service, or commodity by a few large organizations.
    ::少数大型组织控制某一行业、市场、服务或商品。

    Open system  In organizational theory, the degree to which an organization is open to and dependent on its environment.
    ::在组织理论中,一个组织向环境开放和依赖环境的程度。

    Operationalization  In research, the actual procedures or operations conducted to measure a variable.
    ::在研究中,为测量变量而实际实施的程序或操作。

    Opportunity  In an organization, the potential that a particular position contains for the expansion of work responsibilities and rewards.
    ::在一个组织中,某个职位可能带来扩大工作责任和奖励的可能性。

    Organization  A social group deliberately formed to pursue certain values and goals.
    ::一个为追求某些价值观和目标而蓄意组建的社会群体。

    Organizational ritualism  A form of behavior in organizations, particularly in bureaucracies, in which people follow the rules and regulations so closely that they forget the purpose of those rules and regulations.
    ::组织仪式 组织中的一种行为形式 特别是在官僚机构里 人们如此密切地遵守规则和条例 以至于忘记了这些规则和条例的目的

    Organizational waste  The inefficient use of ideas, expertise, money, or material in an organization.
    ::一个组织对思想、专门知识、金钱或材料的使用效率低下。

    Panic  A frightened response by an aggregate of people to an immediate threat.
    ::一群民众对迫在眉睫的威胁作出惊恐的反应。

    Paradigm  In the sociology of science, a coherent tradition of scientific law, theory, and assumptions that forms a distinct approach to problems.
    ::科学的社会学是科学法、理论和假设的一贯传统,对问题形成了一种独特的处理办法。

    Parallel marriage  When husband and wife both work and share household tasks.
    ::夫妻同时工作和分担家务。

    Participant observation  A research method in which the researcher does observation while taking part in the activities of the social group being studied.
    ::研究方法,研究人员在参加研究的社会群体的活动时进行观察。

    Pastoral societies  Societies in which the raising and herding of animals such as sheep, goats, and cows is the primary means of subsistence.
    ::将饲养和放牧绵羊、山羊和牛等动物作为主要生存手段的社会。

    Patriarchal family  A form of family organization in which the father is the formal head of the family.
    ::家长式家庭 家庭组织形式,父亲是正式的一家之主。

    Peer group  Friends and associates of about the same age and social status.
    ::年龄和社会地位大致相同的朋友和同事。

    Play  Spontaneous activity undertaken freely for its own sake yet governed by rules and often characterized by an element of make-believe.
    ::自发活动为自身利益而自由进行,但受规则约束,往往以假象为特点。

    Pluralism  In ethnic relations, the condition that exists when both majority and minority groups value their distinct cultural identities, and at the same time seek economic and political unity. In political sociology, the view that society is composed of competing interest groups, with power diffused among them.
    ::在民族关系中,多数群体和少数群体都重视其独特的文化特性,同时寻求经济和政治团结,这种条件存在于民族关系中。 在政治社会学中,社会由相互竞争的利益集团组成,权力分散。

    Policy research  Research designed to assess alternative possibilities for public or social action, in terms of their costs and/or consequences.
    ::政策研究旨在从代价和/或后果的角度评估公共或社会行动的替代可能性。

    Political economy model  A theory of land use that emphasizes the role of political and economic interests.
    ::一种强调政治和经济利益作用的土地使用理论。

    Political order  The institutionalized system of acquiring and exercising power.
    ::获得和行使权力的体制化制度。

    Political party  An organized group of people that seeks to control or influence political decisions through legal means.
    ::一个有组织的群体,通过法律手段试图控制或影响政治决策。

    Population  In demography, all the people living in a given geographic area. In research, the total number of cases with a particular characteristic.
    ::在人口统计方面,所有居住在特定地理区域的人,在研究方面,有特定特征的病例总数。

    Population exclusion  The efforts of a society to prevent ethnically different groups from joining it.
    ::社会防止不同族裔群体加入社会的努力。

    Population transfer  The efforts of a dominant ethnic group to move or remove members of a minority ethnic group from a particular area.
    ::人口转移 占支配地位的族裔群体为将某一少数民族群体的成员迁离或迁离某一特定地区而作的努力。

    Positive sanctions  Rewards for socially desired behavior.
    ::积极制裁 奖励社会期望的行为。

    Positivist  An approach to explaining human action that does not take into account the individual's interpretation of the situation.
    ::解释人类行动的方法不考虑个人对情况的解释。

    Postindustrial society  A term used by Daniel Bell to refer to societies organized around knowledge and planning rather than around industrial production.
    ::丹尼尔·贝尔使用的术语是指围绕知识和规划组织起来的社会,而不是围绕工业生产组织起来的社会。

    Power  The capacity of an individual group to control or influence the behavior of others, even in the face of opposition.
    ::即使在反对派面前,单个群体也有能力控制或影响他人的行为。

    Power elite  According to Mills, a closely connected group of the corporate rich, political leaders, and military commanders who decide most key social and political issues.
    ::据Mills称,这是一个密切相关的集团,由公司富人、政治领导人和军事指挥官组成,他们决定着最关键的社会和政治问题。

    Prejudice  A "prejudged" unfavorable attitude toward the members of a particular group, who are assumed to possess negative traits.
    ::对某一群体的成员采取一种“预先判断”的不利态度,他们被认为具有负面特征。

    Prestige  A social recognition, respect, and deference accorded individuals or groups based on their social status.
    ::社会承认、尊重和尊重基于其社会地位给予个人或群体的社会地位。

    Primary deviance  Deviant behavior that is invisible to others, short- lived, or unimportant, and therefore does not contribute to the public labeling of an individual as being deviant.
    ::其他人看不见的、短命或不重要的行为,因此无助于公开将个人贴上变异的标签。

    Primary economic sector  The sector of an economy in which natural resources are gathered or extracted.
    ::收集或开采自然资源的经济部门。

    Primary group  A social group characterized by frequent face-to-face interaction, the commitment and emotional ties members feel for one another, and relative permanence.
    ::一个社会群体,其特点是经常面对面的互动、成员对彼此的承诺和感情纽带以及相对持久性。

    Principle of cumulative advantage  A process whereby the positive features of some institutions help to generate further benefits for them.
    ::积累优势原则 某些机构的积极特点有助于为这些机构带来更多好处的过程。

    Privatization  The tendency of families in industrial societies to turn away from the community and workplace toward a primary focus on privacy, domesticity, and intimacy.
    ::工业社会的家庭倾向于从社区和工作场所转向主要关注隐私、家务和亲密关系。

    Processes of socialization  Those interactions that convey to persons being socialized how they are to speak, behave, think, and feel.
    ::社会化进程 这些互动 传达给正在社交的人 如何说话,行为,思考和感受

    Profession  AIR occupation that rests on a theoretical body of knowledge and thus requires specialized training usually recognized by the granting of a degree or credential.
    ::AIR职业属于理论知识,因此需要专业培训,通常通过授予学位或证书得到承认。

    Projection  A psychological process of attributing ones own unacceptable feelings or desires to other people to avoid guilt and self-blame.
    ::预测一种心理过程,将谁归咎于谁就会对其他人产生不可接受的感情或愿望,以避免内疚和自责。

    Property  The rights and obligations a group or individual has in relation to an object, resource, or activity.
    ::某一群体或个人与物体、资源或活动有关的权利和义务。

    Proposition  A statement about how variables are related to each other.
    ::提出一个说明,说明变数如何相互关联。

    Prostitution  The selling of sexual favors.
    ::卖淫 出卖性恩惠


    Race  A classification of humans into groups based on distinguishable physical characteristics that may form the basis for significant social identities.
    ::将人按种族划分为基于不同身体特征的群体,这些特征可能构成重要社会特征的基础。

    Racism  The institutionalized domination of one racial group by another.
    ::种族主义使一个种族群体被另一个种族群体统治制度化。

    Random sample  A sample of units drawn from a larger population in such a way that every unit has a known and equal chance of being selected.
    ::从较大人口中抽取的单位样本,以便每个单位都有被选取的已知和同等机会。

    Range  The total spread of values in a set of figures .
    ::范围 数值在一组数字中的总分布 。

    Rank Place in a social hierarchy.
    ::在社会等级体系中排名。

    Rank differentiation  See  Differentiation, rank.
    ::见《差别、等级》。

    Rape  A completed sexual assault by a male, usually upon a female, although sometimes upon another male.
    ::强奸是一名男性实施的完全性攻击,通常是对一名女性的性攻击,尽管有时是对另一名男性的性攻击。

    Rate of natural increase  The difference between birth and death rates, excluding immigration.
    ::出生率和死亡率之间的差别,不包括移民。

    Rationalization  The process of subjecting social relationships to calculation and administration.
    ::使社会关系受到计算和管理的合理化进程。

    Real values  The values people consider truly important, as evident in their behavior and how they spend their time and money.
    ::人们认为真正重要的价值观,体现在他们的行为以及他们如何花费时间和金钱。

    Rebellion  In anomie theory, a form of deviance that occurs when individuals reject culturally valued means and goals and substitute new means and goals. In political sociology, the expression of opposition to an established authority.
    ::在非宗教理论中,当个人拒绝具有文化价值的手段和目标,并取代新的手段和目标时,就会产生一种偏差,在政治社会学中,这种偏执表现是对一个常设当局的反对。

    Reference group  A social group whose standards and opinions are used by an individual to help define or evaluate beliefs, values, and behaviors.
    ::一个社会群体,其标准和观点被个人用来帮助界定或评价信仰、价值观和行为。

    Reform movement  A type of social movement that accepts the status quo but seeks certain specific social reforms.
    ::一种接受现状但寻求某些具体社会改革的社会运动。

    Regressive movement  A type of social movement whose aim is to move the social world back to where members believe it was at an earlier time.
    ::一种社会运动,其目的是将社会社会社会推回到成员们认为早些时已经回到的地方。

    Relative poverty  The condition of having much less income than the average person in society, even if one can afford the necessities of life.
    ::收入远远低于社会上一般人的收入,即使人们能够负担生活必需品,其条件也是相对贫穷的。

    Religion  A set of shared beliefs and rituals common to a special community and focusing on the sacred and supernatural.
    ::宗教 一套共同的信仰和仪式 一个特殊社区共有 侧重于神圣和超自然。

    Religious movement  An organized religious group with the primary goal of changing existing religious institutions.
    ::一个有组织宗教团体,主要目标是改变现有的宗教机构。

    Research and development  (R&D) Investments in basic research and in the practical application of basic research discoveries.
    ::研究与开发(研发)投资基础研究和基础研究发现的实际应用。

    Research design  The specific plan for conducting a research study, including sampling, measurement, and data analysis.
    ::进行研究研究的具体计划,包括抽样、测量和数据分析。

    Resocialization  The process of socializing people away from a group or activity in which they are involved.
    ::使远离其所参与的群体或活动的人实现社会化的过程。

    Resource mobilization theory  The theory that social movements are affected by their ability to marshal various key resources.
    ::社会运动因其调动各种关键资源的能力而受到影响的理论。

    Retreatism  In anomie theory, a form of deviance that occurs when individuals abandon culturally valued means and goals.
    ::在无序理论中,当个人放弃具有文化价值的手段和目标时,就出现了一种偏差。

    Revolution  A large-scale change in the political leadership of a society and the restructuring of major features of that society.
    ::革命是一个社会政治领导层的大规模变革和社会主要特征的重组。

    Revolutionary movement  A type of social movement whose aim is to reorganize existing society completely.
    ::一种社会运动,目的是彻底重组现有的社会。

    Riot  A destructive and sometimes violent collective outburst.
    ::一场破坏性的,有时是暴力的集体暴发。

    Rising expectations  A situation in which people feel that past hardships should not have to be suffered in the future.
    ::人们感到过去的苦难不应在今后遭受的情况中出现。

    Ritual  In the sociology of religion, the rules of conduct concerning behavior in the presence of the sacred. Intended to produce feelings of reverence, awe, and group identity.
    ::在宗教的社会学中,关于圣徒面前的行为的行为准则。 其目的是产生敬重、敬畏和群体认同的感觉。

    Ritualism  In anomie theory, a form of deviance in which individuals lose sight of socially valued goals but conform closely to socially prescribed means.
    ::在无神论理论中,这是一种偏差形式,即个人无视社会上有价值的目标,但与社会规定的手段密切一致。

    Rival hypothesis  An explanation that competes with the original hypothesis in a study.
    ::与一项研究中最初的假设相冲突的解释。

    Role  To functionalists, the culturally prescribed and socially patterned behaviors associated with particular social positions. For interactionists, the effort to mesh the demands of a social position with one's own identity.
    ::对于功能主义者来说,文化上规定的行为和社会模式的行为与特定社会地位相关。 对于互动主义者来说,努力用自己的身份将社会地位的要求与自己的身份结合起来。

    Role accumulation  Adding more statuses and roles to the ones an individual already has.
    ::个人已经拥有的地位和角色增加更多的地位和作用。

    Role conflict  A situation in which two or more social roles make incompatible demands on a person.
    ::在两种或两种以上社会角色对一个人提出不相容的要求的情况下。

    Role exit  The process of leaving a role that is central to one's identity and building an identity in a new role while also taking into account one's prior role.
    ::作用的退出 留下对一个人的特性具有核心作用的角色,在新的角色中建立身份,同时考虑一个人以前的作用。

    Role expectations  Commonly shared norms about how a person is supposed to behave in a particular role.
    ::关于一个人应如何发挥特定作用的共同准则。

    Role performance  The behaviors of a person performing a certain social role.
    ::发挥某种社会作用的人的行为。

    Role set  The cluster of roles that accompanies a particular status.
    ::设定了随特定地位而来的角色组合。

    Rowdyism  Generalized interpersonal violence or property destruction occurring at spectator events.
    ::在观众活动中发生的人际暴力或财产破坏普遍化。

    Ruling class  A small class that controls the means of economic production and dominates political decisions.
    ::控制经济生产手段和支配政治决策的小阶级。

    Rumor  A report that is passed informally from one person to another without firm evidence.
    ::传闻报告在没有确凿证据的情况下由一个人非正式传递给另一个人。

    Sample survey  A systematic method of collecting information from respondents, using personal interviews or written questionnaires.
    ::使用个人面谈或书面问卷从答复者收集资料的系统方法。

    Sanction  A social reward or punishment for approved or disapproved behavior; can be positive or negative, formal or informal.
    ::对批准或不批准的行为给予社会奖励或惩罚;可以是正面的或负面的、正式的或非正式的。

    Scapegoating  Blaming a convenient but innocent person or group for one's trouble or guilt.
    ::砍死一个方便但无辜的人或团体 以为自己有麻烦或内疚

    Schooling  Formal education.
    ::正规学校教育。

    Science  An approach used to obtain reliable knowledge about the physical and social worlds, based on systematic empirical observations; the knowledge so obtained.
    ::科学方法用于在系统经验观测的基础上获得关于物理和社会世界的可靠知识;以这种方式获得的知识。

    Scientific productivity  Making new discoveries, confirming or disconfirming theoretical hypotheses through experimentation and other types of research, and publishing the results of that research.
    ::科学生产力 创造新的发现,通过实验和其他类型的研究确认或否认理论假设,并公布研究结果。

    Scientific revolution  The dramatic overthrow of one intellectual paradigm by another.
    ::科学革命 一种思想范式被另一个思想范式彻底推翻

    Secondary deviance  Behavior discovered by others and publicly labeled by them as deviant.
    ::他人发现并公开称其为异常行为。

    Secondary economic sector  The sector of an economy in which raw materials are turned into manufactured goods.
    ::原材料转化为制成品的经济部门。

    Secondary group  A social group bound together for the accomplishment of common tasks, with few emotional ties among members.
    ::一个社会群体,为了完成共同的任务而结合在一起,成员之间几乎没有情感联系。

    Sect  An exclusive, highly cohesive group of ascetic religious believers. Sects usually last longer and are more institutionalized than cults.
    ::宗教教派是一个排他性的、高度团结的宗教信徒群体,其持续时间通常更长,比邪教更加制度化。

    Sector theory  A theory of urban development explaining that cities develop in wedge-shaped patterns following transportation systems.
    ::部门理论 城市发展理论 解释城市按照运输系统 以湿形模式发展

    Secularization  The erosion of belief in the supernatural. Includes a growing respect for rationality, cultural and religious pluralism, tolerance of moral ambiguity, faith in education, and belief in civil rights, the rule of law, and due process.
    ::对超自然信仰的侵蚀,包括日益尊重理性、文化和宗教多元化、容忍道德模糊、教育信仰和对公民权利、法治和正当程序的信仰。

    Self-fulfilling prophecy  A belief or prediction about a person or situation that influences that person or situation in such a way that the belief or prediction comes true.
    ::对影响一个人或情况的人或情况的一种信念或预测,其影响方式使这种信念或预测成真。

    Sex  The biological distinction of being male or female.
    ::性别 男性或女性的生物区别。

    Sibling  A brother or sister.
    ::兄妹姊妹

    Social categories  Groups of people who may not interact but who share certain social characteristics or statuses.
    ::社会群体可能不互动,但具有某些社会特征或地位。

    Social change  A modification or transformation in the way society is organized.
    ::改变或改变社会的组织方式。

    Social class  A group's position in a social hierarchy based on prestige and/or property ownership.
    ::A群体在基于声望和(或)财产所有权的社会等级制度中所处的地位。

    Social construction of reality  The process of socially creating definitions of situations so that they appear to be natural.
    ::社会对形势作出定义的过程,使形势看起来自然。

    Social control  The relatively patterned and systematic ways in which society guides and restrains individual behaviors so that people act in predictable and desirable ways.
    ::社会控制 社会引导和限制个人行为的 相对模式化和系统化的方式 以便人们以可预见和可取的方式行事

    Social forces  The social structures and culture individuals face in a society.
    ::社会力量 社会结构和文化 个人 面对社会。

    Social inequality  The existence of unequal opportunities or rewards for people in different social positions.
    ::社会不平等 不同社会地位的人存在不平等的机会或报酬。

    Social interaction  The ways people behave in relation to one another by means of language, gestures, and symbols.
    ::通过语言、手势和符号,人们彼此交往的方式。

    Socialist societies  Societies in which productive resources are owned and controlled by the state rather than by individuals.
    ::生产资源由国家而不是个人拥有和控制的社会主义社会社会。

    Socialization  The process of preparing newcomers to become members of an existing social group by helping them to learn the attitudes and behaviors that are considered appropriate.
    ::社会化 培养新来者成为现有社会群体成员的过程,帮助他们学习被认为适当的态度和行为。

    Social learning theory  A form of learning theory suggesting that people learn through observation and imitation, even though they are not rewarded or punished for certain behaviors.
    ::社会学习理论 一种形式的学习理论 暗示人们通过观察和模仿学习 尽管他们没有因某些行为而得到奖赏或惩罚

    Social mobility  The movement from one status to another within a stratified society.
    ::社会流动性 社会分层社会内部从一个地位向另一个地位的流动。

    Social movement  A group of people who work together to guide or suppress particular changes in the way society is organized.
    ::社会运动 一群人 一起工作 引导或抑制社会组织方式的 特殊改变

    Social network  A set of interdependent relations or links between individuals.
    ::一套相互依存的关系或个人之间的联系。

    Social psychology  The scientific study of how individual behavior is socially influenced.
    ::关于个人行为如何受到社会影响的科学研究。

    Social relations of production  The organization of economic life on the basis of owning or not owning the means of production, purchasing or selling labor power, and controlling or not controlling other people's labor power.
    ::在拥有或不拥有生产手段、购买或出售劳动力量以及控制或不控制他人劳动力量的基础上组织经济生活。

    Social sciences  Disciplines related to sociology that study human activity and communication, including psychology, anthropology, economics, political science.
    ::社会科学学科与研究人类活动和交流的社会学有关,包括心理学、人类学、经济学、政治学。

    Social stratification  The fairly permanent ranking of positions in a society in terms of unequal power, prestige, or privilege.
    ::在一个社会中,在权力、威望或特权不平等方面,相当长期的排名。

    Social structure  Recurrent and patterned relationships among individuals, organizations, nations, or other social units.
    ::社会结构 个人、组织、国家或其他社会单位之间经常性和典型的关系。

    Society  A group of people with a shared and somewhat distinct culture who live in a defined territory, feel some unity as a group, and see themselves as distinct from other peoples.
    ::一个拥有共同和某种独特文化的人群群体,他们生活在一个界定的领土上,作为一个群体感到某种团结,认为自己有别于其他民族。

    Sociobiology  The scientific study of the biological basis for human behavior.
    ::人类行为生物学基础的科学研究

    Socioeconomic status (SES)  An index of social status that considers a person's occupation, education, and income as measures of social status.
    ::社会经济地位(SES) 社会地位指数,将个人的职业、教育和收入作为衡量社会地位的尺度。

    Sociology  The study and analysis of patterned social relationships in modern societies.
    ::研究和分析现代社会中模式化的社会关系。

    Sovereignty  The authority claimed by a state to maintain a legal system, use coercive power to secure obedience, and maintain its independence from other states.
    ::一国声称有权维持法律制度,使用强制权力确保服从,并保持其独立于其他国家的主权。

    Sponsored mobility  A pattern in which certain children are selected at an early age for academic and university education and are thus helped to achieve higher social status.
    ::某些儿童在幼年就被选中接受学术和大学教育,从而获得较高社会地位的帮助的一种模式。

    Sport  A form of game in which the outcome is affected by physical skill.
    ::体育是一种运动形式,其结果受到身体技能的影响。

    Staff job  In an organization, an advisory or administrative job that supports the manufacturing, production, selling, or other primary activities of the organization.
    ::在一个组织中,在支持该组织的制造、生产、销售或其他主要活动的咨询或行政工作。

    Stage theory  A theory suggesting that nations go through various systematic stages of development.
    ::理论A 理论表明,各国经历了不同的系统发展阶段。

    State  The institutionalized, legal organization of power within territorial limits.
    ::国家:在领土范围内制度化、合法的权力组织。

    State sector  The sector of the economy controlled by local, state, or federal governments that supplies goods and services under direct contract to that state.
    ::由地方、州或联邦政府控制,根据直接合同向该州提供货物和服务的经济部门。

    State terrorism  The use of torture, death squads, and disappearances by political states to intimidate citizens.
    ::利用酷刑、行刑队和失踪等手段恐吓公民。

    Status  A socially defined position in society that carries with it certain prescribed rights, obligations, and expected behaviors.
    ::社会上界定的社会地位,带有某些规定的权利、义务和预期行为。

    Status-attainment model  A view of social mobility suggesting the importance of father's education, father's occupation, son's education, and son's first job for a man's adult status. (Early research was based only on men.)
    ::A 社会流动性的观点表明父亲的教育、父亲的职业、儿子的教育以及儿子的第一份工作对于男子的成人地位的重要性。 (只根据男子进行早期研究。 )

    Status group  People who share a social identity based on similar values and life-styles.
    ::具有基于类似价值观和生活方式的社会认同感的人。

    Status inconsistency  May occur when an individual occupies two or more unequal statuses in a society.
    ::当一个人在社会中占有两个或两个以上不平等地位时,就会出现地位不一致的情况。

    Stigmatization  The process of spoiling a person's identity by labeling him or her in a negative way.
    ::污名化 以负面方式给某人贴上标签,破坏其身份的过程。

    Structural change  Demographic, economic, and rank-order changes in a society.
    ::社会的人口、经济和等级顺序变化。

    Structural-functional perspective  One of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology, developed by Talcott Parsons: focuses on how the various parts of society fit together or adjust to maintain the equilibrium of the whole.
    ::结构功能观点 社会学的主要理论观点之一 由Talcott Parsons开发 : 关注社会各部分如何融合或调整以维持整体平衡。

    Subculture  A distinguishable group that shares a number of features with the dominant culture within which it exists while also having unique features such as language, customs, or values.
    ::一个有区别的群体,与存在这种文化的主导文化具有若干特征,同时具有语言、习俗或价值观等独特特征。

    Subjective meanings  The values and interpretations individuals place on their life situations and experiences; may vary from person to person.
    ::个人对其生活状况和经历的价值观和解释;人与人之间可能有所不同。

    Subjective social class  A person's own perception of his or her class position.
    ::个人对其阶级地位的看法。

    Suburb  A fairly small community within an urban area that includes a central city.
    ::在一个包括中央城市的城市地区,一个很小的社区。

    Sunbelt  The area south of the 37th parallel in the United States, including Clark County in Nevada.
    ::包括内华达的克拉克县

    Superego  In Freudian theory, the part of the personality structure that upholds the norms of society.
    ::在弗洛伊德理论中,超高位是维护社会规范的个性结构的一部分。

    Symbol  Any object or sign that evokes a shared social response.
    ::任何引起社会共同反应的物体或标志。

    Symbolic interaction  Interaction that relies on shared symbols such as language.
    ::依赖语言等共同符号的互动。

    Symbolic interactionism  An interpretive perspective, inspired by the work of George Herbert Mead, saying that individuals learn meanings through interaction with others and then organize their lives around these socially created meanings.
    ::由George Herbert Mead作品所启发的解释视角, 表示个人通过与他人的互动学习意义,


    Taboo  A strongly prohibited social practice; the strongest form of social norm.
    ::强烈禁止社会习俗;最强的社会规范形式。

    Technological determinism  The belief that technological development shapes social life in rather fixed ways.
    ::技术发展以相当固定的方式塑造社会生活的信念。

    Technology  The practical applications of scientific knowledge.
    ::科学知识的实际应用。

    Tension release theory  A theory suggesting that sport serves as a form of social safety valve, allowing individuals to vent their seething aggressions.
    ::一个理论暗示体育是社会安全阀的一种形式, 允许个人释放他们的渗漏攻击。

    Terrorism  An attack on people designed to frighten society and force it to meet the terrorists' demands.
    ::恐怖主义攻击旨在恐吓社会并迫使社会满足恐怖分子的要求的人。

    Tertiary economic sector  The sector of an economy that offers services to individuals as well as to business.
    ::向个人和企业提供服务的经济部门。

    Theoretical approach  A set of guiding ideas.
    ::理论方法 一套指导思想

    Theory  A system of orienting ideas, concepts, and relationships that provides a way of organizing the observable world.
    ::理论系统 引导思想、概念和关系 提供一种组织可观测世界的方式

    Theory  X A view of organizational behavior suggesting that people hate their jobs, want to avoid responsibility, resist change, and do not care about organizational needs.
    ::X理论对组织行为的看法表明,人们憎恨自己的工作,想要逃避责任,抵制变革,不关心组织需要。

    Theory  Y A view of organizational behavior suggesting that people have the desire to work, to be creative, and to take responsibility for their jobs and for the organization.
    ::对组织行为的看法表明,人们有工作、创造性和为自己的工作和组织承担责任的愿望。

    Theory  Z A form of organizational culture that values long-term employment, trust, and close personal relationships between workers and managers.
    ::理论Z是一种组织文化形式,它珍视长期就业、信任以及工人和管理人员之间密切的个人关系。

    Total fertility rate  An estimate of the average number of children that would be born to each woman over her reproductive life if current age-specific birth rates remained constant.
    ::如果目前特定年龄的出生率保持不变,估计每个妇女在其生育期间所生子女的平均人数。

    Total institution  A place where people spend 24 hours of every day for an extended part of their lives, cut off from the rest of society and tightly controlled by the people in charge.
    ::机构总数 -- -- 一个人们每天24小时度过一段漫长生活、与社会其他部分隔绝、由负责人严格控制的地方。

    Totalitarianism  A form of autocracy that involves the use of state power to control and regulate all phases of life.
    ::独裁是一种独裁形式,涉及利用国家权力来控制和管制生活的所有阶段。

    Tournament selection  An educational pattern in which a continual process of selection serves to weed out candidates; winners move on to the next round of selection and losers are eliminated from the competition.
    ::一种教育模式,在这种模式中,持续的甄选过程有助于剔除候选人;获胜者进入下一轮甄选,输者从竞争中消失。

    Tracking  The practice of grouping students by ability, curriculum, or both.
    ::跟踪按能力、课程或两者对学生进行分组的做法。

    Triad  A group composed of three people.
    ::三合会A小组由三人组成。

    Underemployment  The hiring of people in jobs that are not customarily filled by individuals with their relatively high levels of experience or education.
    ::雇用人员从事通常不由具有较高经验或教育程度的个人填补的工作。

    Underground economy  Exchanges of goods and services that occur outside the arena of the normal, regulated economy and therefore escape official record keeping.
    ::正常、受监管经济领域外的货物和服务交易所,因此逃避了官方记录。

    Unit of analysis  Who or what is being studied in a piece of social research. 
    ::在社会研究中正在研究的是谁或什么。

    Urbanization  The growth of cities.
    ::城市化 城市的增长

    Value-added theory  A theory suggesting that many instances of collective behavior represent efforts to change the social environment.
    ::一种理论表明,许多集体行为是改变社会环境的努力。

    Values  Strongly held general ideas that people share about what is good and bad, desirable or undesirable; values provide yardsticks for judging specific acts and goals.
    ::强烈持有一般观点,人们对好坏、可取或不可取的东西有共同看法;价值观为判断具体行为和目标提供了标准。

    Variable  A logical set of attributes with different degrees of magnitude or different categories. For example, age is a variable on which people can be classified according to the number of years they have lived. 
    ::变量 逻辑的一组属性,其大小或类别不同。例如,年龄是一个变量,人们可以据此根据所生活的年数进行分类。

    Verstehen  The effort to understand social behavior in terms of the motives individuals bring to it.
    ::Verstehen 努力从个人带来的动机来理解社会行为。

    Vertical integration  A form of business organization that attempts to control the business environment by assuming control of one or more of its resources or business outlets.
    ::纵向一体化 一种商业组织形式,它试图控制商业环境,控制一种或多种资源或商业渠道。

    Vertical mobility  Movement of an individual or a group upward or downward, from one social status to another.
    ::个人或群体从社会地位向上或向下移动,从社会地位向上或向下移动。

    Wealth  The total value (minus debts) of what is owned.
    ::财富 拥有财产的总价值(减去债务) 。

    Weberian approach  The views held by conflict theorists who, using the ideas of Max Weber, stress the significance of conflict in social life, especially conflict among status groups such as those based on occupation, ethnic background, or religion.
    ::冲突理论家的观点,他们利用马克斯·韦伯的观点,强调冲突在社会生活中的重要性,特别是基于占领、族裔背景或宗教等地位群体之间的冲突。

    White-collar crime  Crimes committed by "respectable" individuals, often while they practice their occupations-- for example, embezzling money or stealing computer time.
    ::白领犯罪 白领犯罪 由“受尊敬的”个人所为, 经常在他们从事职业时 —— 比如盗取钱财或窃取电脑时间。

    White ethnics  White Americans who value and preserve aspects of their ethnic heritage.
    ::白人白人美国人,他们珍视并保存着他们的民族遗产的各个方面。

    World systems analysis  A form of sociological analysis that stresses understanding national behavior in terms of historical and contemporary relationships among nations and societies .
    ::世界系统分析 一种社会学分析形式,它强调从国家和社会之间的历史和当代关系方面理解国家行为 。

    Zero population growth (ZPG)  The situation that occurs when the population of a nation or the world remains stable from one year to the next.
    ::一国或世界人口一年到下一年保持稳定时出现的情况。

    © copyright 1996 Caroline Hodges Persell
    ::版权 1996 Caroline Hodges Persell 1996年