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  • 基因同性人进化

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    Was He or Wasn't He?
    ::是他还是不是他?

    Was this athletic-looking individual a member of our own , Homo sapiens ? Although some modern humans had evolved by the time he lived (between 125 thousand and 300 thousand years ago), the individual represented by this reconstruction was not a member of our own species. Instead, he was a member of the last human species before our own. He was an African representative of the species Homo heidelbergensis , which is thought to have been ancestral to modern humans.
    ::这个看体育的个体是否属于我们自己的人 — — 智人? 虽然一些现代人类在他活着时(在12万5千到30万年前)已经进化了,但这次重建所代表的个人不是我们自身物种的成员,相反,他还是我们自己之前最后一个人类物种的成员。 他是人类同族的非洲代表,被认为是现代人类的祖先。

    The Genus Homo
    ::基因同性人

    The term human applies to all members of the genus Homo. It includes not only modern people in the species Homo sapiens  —  the only living species of  Homo  —  but also people in several extinct Homo species, including Homo heidelbergensis . At various times in the past, more than one species of Homo existed at the same time and in the same location. It is also possible that more than one early  Homo species evolved into Homo sapiens at different times and in different places. Obviously, the evolution of the genus Homo is complex.
    ::人类一词适用于同族同族的所有成员,不仅包括现代人(同族的唯一活种),还包括若干灭绝的同族种,包括同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族同族,还可能有一个以上的早期同族异族在不同的时间和不同的地方演变成同族同族同族同族,显然,同族同族同族的进化是复杂的。

    At the critical point in time when the earliest Homo species were evolving, a long period of climatic instability was beginning. Overall, the climate was becoming drier and cooler, but there were also wide swings in climate that would have severely tested the adaptability of most species. It is likely that the ability to adapt to such environmental changes was strongly selected for and a major reason for the evolution of larger-brained and "smarter" humans.
    ::在最早的同种物种正在演变的关键时刻,长期的气候不稳定正在开始。 总的来说,气候正在变得干燥和凉爽,但气候也会发生大起大落,会严重考验大多数物种的适应能力。 很可能,适应这种环境变化的能力被强烈地挑选出来,而适应这种环境变化的能力也是更聪明和“更聪明”的人类进化的主要原因。

    The human brain increased in size throughout the evolution of the genus Homo . At first, the increase was gradual, but it became very rapid about 800 thousand years ago. As the brain grew , there was a lso an  increase in the technological sophistication of Homo . From the start, human species made and used stone tools, but these tools became increasingly refined and efficient over time. Tools allowed humans to exploit their environment in new ways. Humans also learned to control and use fire, which provided heat and light, kept  away predators , and cooked food . 
    ::人类大脑在基因同体进化过程中的体积不断增大。 起初,人类大脑的体积在逐渐增加,但是在80万年前却变得非常迅速。 随着大脑的成长,人类大脑的技术复杂性也在增加。从一开始,人类就制造和使用石器工具,但随着时间的推移,这些工具变得越来越精细和有效。工具使人类能够以新的方式开发环境。人类还学会了控制和使用火力,因为火能提供热和光,远离掠食者,烹饪食物。

    Homo habilis
    ::同性恋同居者

    The first known species of Homo appeared in East Africa between 2.5 and 2.8 million years ago, around the same time the last known australopithecines disappeared from the . It is generally accepted that an australopithecine species (such as Australopithecus africanus ) was the immediate ancestor of Homo in East Africa. Early transitional human , like the fossil skull , were discovered by Louis and Mary Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania in 1960. Stone tools were found with these fossils, so the Leakeys named this early human species Homo habilis (meaning " handy human"). I t should be noted that stone  tools dating back even earlier  have since been discovered, some of them in association with australopithecines. It is likely that Homo habilis was not the first hominin species to make and use stone tools.
    ::第一个已知的同性恋物种在250万至280万年前的东非出现,大约在同一时间,最后一个已知的青蒿素类动物从该物质中消失。人们普遍承认,青蒿素类动物物种(如Australopithecus Africanus)是东非同性恋的直系祖先。1960年路易和玛丽·莱凯在坦桑尼亚奥杜瓦伊峡谷发现了像化石头一样的早期过渡人类。用这些化石发现了石器,因此莱基人命名为早期人类物种“人本性 ” ( 指“手淫人 ” ) 。 应该指出, 早在很久以前就发现了石器,其中一些与青蒿素类有关。 同性恋可能不是最早制造和使用石器的人类物种。

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    This reconstructed skull of Homo habilis was found in East Africa and dates to almost two million years ago.
    ::这是在东非发现的 大约在两百万年前

    What were these early, handy humans like? Homo habilis was very similar to the australopithecines, but with certain differences. Like the australopithecines, Homo habilis individuals were habitually bipedal and also short and lightly built. The most noticeable differences between Homo habilis and the australopithecines were in the head . H omo habilis  individuals had somewhat smaller molar teeth, jaws, and faces than the australopithecines. They also  had bigger brains.  The average Homo habilis brain was about 50 percent larger than the average australopithecine brain.
    ::这些早期的、便便的人类是什么样子的? 人本性与青蒿素非常相似, 但也有某些差异。 像青蒿素一样, 人本性人通常是双双双造的, 也是短的和轻的。 人脑和青青蒿素之间最明显的区别在脑部。 人本性人比青青蒿素的牙齿、 下巴和面孔要小一些。 他们也有更大的大脑。 普通人本性人脑比普通青蒿素大脑大大约50% 。

    Fossils of Homo habilis show that they lived in East Africa until about 1.4 million years ago. After that,  they apparently went extinct. By then, another species of Homo called   Homo erectus  had already evolved.
    ::智人法的法西斯表明,他们一直生活在东非直到140万年前。 在那之后,他们显然已经灭绝。 到那时,另一个叫“智人勃起”的同族已经进化了。

    Homo erectus

    ::智人勃起

    The human species called   Homo erectus first shows up in the fossil record in East Africa by 1.9 million years ago. Apparently, Homo   erectus lived side by side with Homo habilis for about half a million years. Its immediate ancestor is uncertain. Both Homo erectus and Homo habilis may have evolved from earlier australopithecines, or Homo erectus may have evolved from Homo habilis.   Homo erectus lived until at least 800 thousand years ago, and in some places (especially East Asia), much more recently. Clearly, Homo erectus was a successful species. It lasted for about 1.5 million years, which is far longer than our own species  Homo sapiens has existed.
    ::被称为人猿勃起的人类物种最早出现在东非的化石记录中190万年前就出现了。显然,人猿勃起与人猿同居了大约50万年。其直系祖先还不确定。 人猿和人猿都可能已经从早期的古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代的古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代的古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代的古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代的古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代的古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代的古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代的古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古代古

    Even more than Homo habilis , Homo erectus was a maker and user of stone tools. Homo erectus was also the first human to leave Africa (by 1.8 million years ago). In fact, Homo erectus  migrated as far as Georgia (in Eurasia), India, China, and Indonesia. Homo erectus was also the first human to discover how to control and use fire (by 1.5 million years ago). Because Homo erectus was able to use technology and culture to adapt to new conditions (including colder climates), the species remained relatively unchanged physically while adapting to environmental change behaviorally.
    ::人造人造人和使用石头工具的人甚至比人造人人还多。 人造人人造人也是第一个离开非洲的人(180万年前)。 事实上,人造人造人人造人人造人人人造人人造人人人造人造人人造人人造人造人造人造人造人造人人造人造人造人人造人造人造人造人人造人人造人人造人造人造人造人造人人人造人造人造人造人人造人造人造人造人造人人造人造人造人造人人造人人造人人造人人人人造人造人(150万年前 ) 。 由于人造人造人造人利用技术和文化适应新环境(包括寒冷气候 ) , 人类在适应环境变化的同时,行为上保持相对不变。

    Homo erectus   was bigger than Homo habilis and more similar to  modern humans in body size.  In fact, below the neck, Homo erectus would have been virtually indistinguishable from Homo sapiens , as you can see from the drawing of Homo erectus .  Based on their skeletal features, it is likely that Homo erectus individuals were efficient long-distance runners, just like  well-conditioned modern humans. Homo erectus  hunters may have been able to outrun small- to medium-sized game . If they did, they would have sweated heavily in their warm East African savanna habitats . They would have become overheated if their  body wasn't relatively hairless, allowing the sweat to  evaporate, which is why scientists think Homo erectus  evolved less body hair. W ithout body hair, however, the skin of  Homo erectus would have been exposed to harmful solar radiation. This would have favored the evolution of dark skin, which offers protection against the sun's rays.
    ::事实上,在颈部下,自大自大几乎无法与智人区分,正如你从《自立人》的图画中可以看到的那样。根据人体骨骼特征,自立人可能是高效长距离跑者,就像条件完善的现代人类一样。自大自大猎人可能已经超越了中小型游戏。如果是这样,他们就会在温暖的东非稀树草原栖息地中大量出汗。如果他们的身躯不是相对无毛的,他们就会变得过热,让汗水蒸发,这就是科学家们认为自大自大人发发芽较少的原因。但是,没有身体毛,自立人的皮肤就会暴露在有害的太阳辐射之下。这将有利于暗皮肤的进化,因为暗皮能保护太阳的光线。

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    The body of Homo erectus would have been nearly indistinguishable from that of modern Homo sapiens.
    ::智人的身体几乎无法与现代智人的身体区分开来。

    In contrast, the head of Homo erectus ( shown )  looked very different from that of modern Homo sapiens . It featured prominent brow ridges and a sloping forehead. Although the teeth were smaller that those of Homo habilis , they were still larger than those of Homo sapiens . The brain of Homo erectus was about 50 percent larger than that of Homo habilis,  but still only about 75 percent as large as the modern human brain. The skull was lower and longer from front to back than the skull of modern humans, which would have allowed less room for the parts of the brain necessary for higher mental functions. This suggests that Homo erectus individuals may have been  less intelligent than modern Homo sapiens .
    ::相比之下,智人勃起(Shown)的头部看起来与现代智人头部大不相同。 其特征是显眼的眉脊和尖眉。 虽然牙齿小于智人头,但仍然比智人大。 智人脑大约50%,但仍然只有现代人脑大约75%。 头骨比现代人的头骨低长,比现代人的头骨要长,因为现代人的脑骨头可以让大脑中更高智力功能所需的部分空间更少。 这表明人脑勃起的人可能比现代智人更不聪明。

    The features of the head of Homo erectus are depicted in this reconstruction based on fossil evidence.
    ::在这次以化石证据为根据的重建中, 描绘了立体人头的特征。

    Homo  erectus started to evolve the larger brain of Homo sapiens as early as 800 thousand years ago in southern Europe and East Africa. T he transition to modern humans, however, occurred at different times and rates in various parts of the world. It was not complete until 100 thousand years ago — or even later, in some places.
    ::早在80万年前,在南欧和东非,智人勃起开始进化大脑的智人。 然而,向现代人类的转型发生在不同的时代和世界不同地区。 直到10万年前 — — 甚至是后来 — — 在某些地方才完成。

    Homo heidelbergensis
    ::同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性异性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性同性性同性性性同性同性性同性性性性性性性性性同

    The more modern-looking Homo individuals that lived less than 800 thousand years ago are usually classified in the species   Homo heidelbergensis.  This species of   Homo was named for the city of Heidelberg, Germany, where the earliest fossil of this extinct species was found in 1907. Many fossils of this species have since been found throughout the Old World in both and regions, including Europe. Fossils of Homo heidelbergensis have even been found in  England.
    ::生活在80万年前的较现代的同性人通常被归类为同性人种。这种同性人种被命名为德国海德堡市,该市是1907年发现的这种灭绝物种最早的化石。此后,在包括欧洲在内的整个老世界和各个地区都发现了许多这种物种的化石。甚至在英格兰也发现了同性人种的化石。

    Homo heidelbergensis appears to have had a mix of traits of Homo erectus and Homo sapiens , as you can see from the Homo heidelbergensis model pictured .  Their body size was only a little smaller than that of modern humans, and their brain size was at least 90 percent of the average brain size of today's  Homo sapiens . T heir heads, however, still would have appeared different from ours. Like Homo erectus, they had large brow ridges and a sloping forehead. Their skull was also elongated from front to back, like that of Homo erectus.
    ::同性人似乎有同性人和同性人的综合特征,正如你从同性人模型中看到的那样。他们的体型比现代人小一点,他们的大脑大小至少是当今同性人平均大脑大小的90%。但是他们的头还是会与我们不同。和同性人一样,他们有着巨大的眉脊和额头。他们的头骨也像同性人一样从头到尾被拉长。他们的头骨也像同性人一样从头到尾被拉长。

    This life-like Homo heidelbergensis model is based on fossilized remains.
    ::这种像生命一样的同性异性模型 以化石化的遗骸为基础

    It is generally agreed that Homo heidelbergensis was a transitional human species that evolved from Homo erectus and was ancestral to Homo sapiens , and that it  first evolved as early as 200 thousand years ago in East Africa.  Homo heidelbergensis  was also ancestral to the now-extinct species called   Homo neanderthalensis, commonly known as  Neanderthals. By the time of Homo heidelbergensis, humans were using even more advanced stone tools, and may have been hunting big game animals. You can learn much more about the tools and other cultural adaptations of Homo heidelbergensis and earlier Homo species in the concept The Role of Culture in Human Evolution .
    ::人们普遍同意,同性恋是人类中一种过渡性物种,从直立人进化而来,是祖传的动物,早在20万年前,在东非就首次演变为同性人;同性人也是现今灭绝的物种的祖先,称为同性人,通常称为尼安德特人;在同性人时代,人类正在使用更先进的石器,可能已经在猎杀大型动物;在“文化在人类进化中的作用”的概念中,你可以更多地了解同性人和较早的同性人的工具和其他文化适应。

    Feature: Human Biology in the News
    ::特著:《新闻》中的人类生物学

    In 1989, a partial femur (thigh bone) was found in a cave in southwestern China. The fossilized fragment was not dated until 2015, when it was determined that it was just  14 thousand years old. This dating is astonishing, because the bone was reported to look morphologically as though it belonged either to Homo habilis —  which presumably went extinct 1.4 million years ago — or to Homo erectus , which presumably went extinct no later than 100 thousand to 70 thousand years ago. Needless to say, this finding caused a lot of excitement when it was reported in the media. It suggested that a previously unknown pocket of early hominins had co-existed with modern humans long after such hominins were  thought to have gone extinct.
    ::1989年,在中国西南部的一个洞穴中发现了部分股骨(高骨),化石碎片的日期直到2015年才确定只有14 000年。这一日期令人吃惊,因为据报告,骨骼在形态上看起来似乎要么是140万年前灭绝的Hibilis人,要么是早在140万年前灭绝的Hibalis人,要么是早在10万到70万年前灭绝的Hibalpus人。不用说,媒体报道这一发现引起了许多激动。 这表明,在认为Homminins人灭绝很久之后,早期未知的Homminins人与现代人共同生活。

    After the finding was published, some paleontologists cautioned that jumping to conclusions about the existence of a recent Homo habilis or Homo erectus on the basis of a single bone fragment would be premature. They suggested an alternative explanation: that the bone represented variation in modern human skeletal anatomy. The researchers that dated the bone acknowledged that, to survive until 14 thousand years ago, a population of Homo habilis or Homo erectus would have had to remain very isolated. The researchers are  now planning follow-up studies to look for additional evidence that early humans overlapped with modern humans as recently as 14 thousand years ago in East Asia. Watch the media for more reports on this exciting possibility. It is sure to make a big splash if additional evidence is found confirming it!
    ::发现结果公布后,一些古生物学家警告说,在根据一个骨头碎片对最近存在一个同性或同性勃起的同性人或同性勃起者作出结论为时尚早。 他们提出了一个替代解释:骨骼代表现代人类骨骼解剖的变异。 日期为骨骼的研究人员承认,要生存到14000年前, 一群同性或同性勃起者必须保持非常孤立的状态。 研究人员目前正在计划后续研究,以寻找更多证据,证明早期人类与现代人类相重叠,直到14000年前才在东亚出现。 观察媒体了解更多关于这种令人兴奋的可能性的报告。 如果发现更多证据可以证实这一点的话, 肯定会大肆宣传!

    Summary
    ::摘要

    • The earliest species in the genus Homo evolved at the start of a long period of climatic instability. It is likely that this led to strong selective pressure for larger-brained hominins that could adapt behaviorally, rather than physically. The human brain increased in size throughout the evolution of the genus Homo. The increase occurred slowly at first, and then became very rapid.
      ::人类同性人最早的物种是在长期气候不稳定的开始阶段进化的。 这可能会导致对更大型的脑脑部产生强烈的选择性压力,这种压力可以在行为上而不是身体上适应。 在人类同性人的进化过程中,人类大脑的体积不断增大。 增长开始缓慢,随后变得非常迅速。
    • The first known species of Homo appeared in East Africa about 2.5 million years ago. It was called   Homo habilis ("handy human"), because the fossils were found with stone tools. Homo habilis was similar to earlier australopithecines, but had a somewhat more modern head and a bigger brain. Homo habilis went extinct 1.4 million years ago.
      ::第一种已知的同性恋物种出现在东非大约250万年前。 它被称为“人体同性恋 ” , 因为化石是用石器发现的。 人性嗜好类似于早期的奥氏杆菌,但有更现代的脑袋和更大的大脑。 人性嗜好在140万年前就灭绝了。
    • The species called   Homo erectus first shows up in the fossil record in East Africa about 1.9 million years ago, having evolved from Homo habilis or australopithecines. Homo erectus had a bigger brain than Homo habilis and made more advanced stone tools. Homo erectus was also the first human to leave Africa (1.8 million years ago) and control fire (1.5 million years ago). Homo erectus eventually spread throughout Eurasia before evolving into Homo heidelbergensis, starting  around 800 thousand years ago.
      ::在东非,190万年前从High habilis 或 autrolopicitecines 进化而来,在化石记录中首次出现名为“智人勃起”的物种。 智人勃起的大脑比同人勃起的大脑大得多,并且制造了更先进的石器。 智人勃起也是第一个离开非洲(180万年前)和控制火力(150万年前)的人。 智人勃起最终在欧亚各地蔓延,然后从80万年前开始演变成同性heidelbergens。
    • Transitional Homo fossils more recent than 800 thousand years ago are generally classified in the species Homo heidelbergensis . This species had a mix of traits of Homo erectus and early Homo sapiens.  Body and brain sizes of Homo heidelbergensis were only a little smaller than those of early Homo sapiens . Homo heidelbergensis also made more sophisticated stone tools and spread out more widely through the Old World. This species is thought to have evolved into Neanderthals in Europe by 500 thousand years ago and into early Homo sapiens  by 200 thousand years ago.
      ::近八万多年前的过渡性同性恋化石一般被归类为同性基因类。这种物种混合了同性勃起和早期的同性人。同性人的身体和大脑大小只小于早期的同性人。同性人还制造了更先进的石器,在旧世界中传播得更为广泛。据认为,这种物种在50万年前就已经演变成欧洲的尼安德特人,在20万年前又演变成早期的同性人。

    Review
    ::回顾

    1. Explain how climate change may have been a stimulus for the evolution of a bigger brain in the genus Homo.
    ::1. 解释气候变化如何刺激了人类同性人中更大大脑的进化。

    2. Describe the genus Homo habilis in terms of mophology, location, and timespan.
    ::2. 就消瘦、地点和时间跨度而言,描述同性人。

    3. What does the name Homo habilis mean, and why was it given to this particular species of Homo?  
    ::3. " 同性恋嗜好 " 的名称意味着什么,为何给予这一特殊种类的同性恋?

    4. What human "firsts" are associated with the species  Homo erectus ?
    ::4. 何为人类的“第一”与人类的立体人种有关?

    5. Explain why paleontologists think that a relatively hairless body and dark skin evolved in Homo erectus.
    ::5. 解释为什么古生物学家认为一个相对无毛的躯体和皮肤暗淡的皮肤会进化为人形。

    6. Compare and contrast Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis .
    ::6. 比较和对比 " 立体人 " 和 " 立体人 " 和 " 立体人 " 。

    7. What is the likely role of Homo heidelbergensis in the evolution of Homo sapiens ?
    ::7. 智人进化过程中,智人可能扮演什么角色?

    8. Put the following species in order of when they first evolved:
    ::8. 将下列物种按它们首次进化时的顺序排列如下:

    Homo erectus; Australopithecus africanus ; Homo heidelbergensis; Homo habilis
    ::智人勃起;非洲人;智人;同性人;同性人;同性人。

     

    9. True or False: Homo habilis coexisted with Homo erectus
    ::9. 真实或假:同性人与直立人共存

     

    10. True or False: Homo habilis was the first species to use tools.
    ::10. 真实或假:同性人是首先使用工具的物种。

     

    11. True or False:  The most recent ancestor of modern humans is Homo neanderthalensis.
    ::11. 真实或假:现代人类的最近祖先是同性恋尼安德特人。

     

    12. Body hair traps body heat to help keep animals warm. Why do you think Homo erectus might have been able to live in colder climates, even though they had less body hair?
    ::12. 人体毛发会捕捉身体热量,帮助动物保持温暖,你为什么认为人体勃起者能够生活在较寒冷的气候中,即使他们的头发较少?

     

    13. What does it meant that Homo heidelbergensis was a “transitional” human species between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens ?
    ::13. 何谓 " 智障人 " 是人与智障人之间的 " 过渡性 " 人类?

     

    14. Explain why skull shape can potentially give insight into the level of intelligence of early human species.
    ::14. 解释为什么头骨形状有可能使人们深入了解早期人类的智力水平。

    Explore More
    ::探索更多

    Check out this video to learn more about intelligence and how  it is related to brain size:
    ::并了解与大脑大小的关系:

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

     

    Paleoanthropologists believe Homo sapiens evolved in Africa hundreds of thousands of years ago, and that they eventually migrated to populate the rest of the globe. How have researchers traced the specifics of this human migration? Learn more here: 
    ::地貌学家相信,数十万年前在非洲进化了智人,他们最终移民到全球其他地方。 研究人员如何追踪人类迁移的具体细节?在这里学习更多: