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  • 案例研究研究结论:演变中可能是一种痛苦

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    Drawing from a book published in the 1880s, this image illustrates the skeletons of a human, chimpanzee, and an orangutan (from left to right).
    ::从1880年代出版的一本书中, 这幅图画描绘了人类、黑猩猩和猩猩(从左到右)的骨骼。

    Case Study Conclusion: Evolving Can Be a Pain
    ::案例研究研究结论:演变中可能是一种痛苦

    What do the three skeletons shown in the illustration above have in common? You can see that they have many similarities in structure, but some differences, as well. As you have learned in this chapter, the human, chimpanzee, and orangutan shown above are all primates. Not only that, but they are all also members of the family Hominidae —  or the great apes. The orangutan lineage split off from the ancestral hominid line between approximately  12 and  13 million years ago. The chimpanzee lineage split off from the human lineage more recently (about six million years ago), making chimpanzees our closest living relative.
    ::以上插图中显示的三个骨骼有什么共同之处?你可以看到它们的结构有许多相似之处,但也有一些不同之处。正如你在本章中了解到的,上面显示的人类、黑猩猩和猩猩都是灵长类。不仅如此,它们都是Hominidae家族的成员 — — 或者说大猩猩。红猩猩与大约1200万到1300万年前的祖先小猩猩分界线分离。黑猩猩最近(大约600万年前)从人类小种族分裂开来,使黑猩猩成为我们最亲近的亲戚。

    In the illustration, all three are depicted in an upright walking pose so we can more easily compare them , but humans are the only primates for which walking bipedally (i.e. walking on two legs) is the primary mode of locomotion. In fact, bipedalism is the main defining trait of hominins, which includes modern humans and our recent ancestors. Hominins evolved several skeletal adaptations that allowed them to walk bipedally, compared to quadrupedal chimpanzees or orangutans. These adaptations included feet with arches, longer legs, and a short, wide pelvis. Chimpanzees, on the other hand, retain characteristics that are well-adapted to a quadrupedal life in trees. These characteristics include a narrow pelvis, long arms, curved fingers, and a divergent big toe.
    ::在插图中,所有这三个人都是以直立的步行姿势描绘的,这样我们可以更容易地比较它们,但是人类是唯一的灵长类动物,其双腿行走(即双腿行走)是运动的主要模式。事实上,双足主义是民俗的主要定型特征,其中包括现代人类和我们最近的祖先。霍明斯演化出数种骨骼适应,允许他们双足行走,与四肢相近的黑猩猩或猩猩相比。这些适应包括大弓脚、长腿和短、宽的骨盆。另一方面,黑猩猩保留了适合树木中四肢生活的特征。这些特征包括狭窄的骨盆、长臂、弯指和不同的大脚趾。

    The evolution of bipedalism was a major event in our evolutionary history. As you have learned, bipedalism may have given early hominins an advantage when climate change caused a reduction in forests and an increase in grassy savannas. Bipedalism also freed up the hands and enabled early hominins to more easily use and create tools. But this defining feature of humans and our recent ancestors may have come at a cost — the lower back pain that Sarah and many other people experience, as described in the beginning of this chapter.
    ::两足主义的进化是我们进化史上的一个主要事件。 正如你们所了解的那样,两足主义在气候变化导致森林减少和草原草原增加时,可能早早给人以优势。两足主义还解放了手,使早期的老百姓更容易使用和创造工具。但是,人类和我们最近祖先的这一特征可能付出了代价 — — 正如本章开头所描述的那样,这是莎拉和许多其他人经历的较轻背痛。

    Scientists have long postulated that the relatively rapid evolution of bipedalism contributed to the high degree of back and joint pain experienced by modern humans. They hypothesized that, because our ancestors evolved as tree-climbing quadrupeds, our spines and joints are unable to adequately take the stresses of gravity involved in walking on two legs. Until recently, there was little quantitative evidence to support this hypothesis.
    ::科学家们长期认为,相对快速的两足主义演变导致现代人类经历的背痛和共同痛苦程度较高。 他们假设,由于我们的祖先进化为爬树四倍,我们的脊椎和关节无法充分承受双腿行走的重力压力。 直到最近,几乎没有数量证据支持这一假设。

    But in 2015, a study published by Plomp et al. in BMC Evolutionary Biology provided evidence that may support this idea. The authors compared the spines of chimpanzees, orangutans, and humans, and found that some humans have a lesion called a Schmorl’s node, which is an indication of a small bulge (or hernia) in a disc between the vertebrae. As you learned at the beginning of this chapter, herniated discs are a common cause of back pain. Interestingly, the researchers found that the human spines that have Schmorl's nodes also have some features of their vertebrae that make them very similar in shape to chimpanzee vertebrae. Human spines without Schmorl's nodes, on the other hand, were significantly different from chimpanzee vertebrae in these characteristics. This finding led the authors to conclude that there is variation in human spinal anatomy and that people with a more “ancestral” (i.e. chimpanzee-like) vertebrae shape may experience more back pain, due to disc herniations. This may support the idea that when the spines of our recently-quadrupedal ancestors started to experience bipedalism, it may have put increased pressure on the discs, leading to herniations and back pain.
    ::但2015年,Plomp等人在BMC进化生物学中发表的一项研究(BMC Evolutionary Bilogy)提供了可能支持这一想法的证据。作者比较了黑猩猩、猩猩和人类的脊椎,发现有些人类的脊椎与黑猩猩的脊椎有着非常相似的特征。另一方面,没有石摩尔节点的人类脊椎与脊椎之间的盘子有很大不同。正如您在本章开头所了解到的,角状盘是后背疼痛的一个常见原因。有趣的是,研究人员发现有石摩尔节点的人类脊椎也具有使其形状与黑猩猩的脊椎非常相似的一些特征。另一方面,没有石摩尔节点的人类脊椎与脊椎有显著的区别。正如您在本章开头所发现的那样,尖峰盘是人类脊椎的反常态变化。研究人员发现,具有更“螺旋节点”的人的脊椎也具有某些特征,这些特征使得它们与黑猩猩的脊椎非常相似。而人类的脊椎与黑猩猩的脊椎的脊椎也开始形成更强烈的脊椎。

    While this data appears to support the idea that the rapid evolution of bipedalism may have contributed to our current epidemic of low back pain, it is an early study, and much more work needs to be done to verify and extend the findings. For example, in the future, three-dimensional imaging of the spines of live humans (instead of skeletons) could be done in order to correlate features of skeletal anatomy with the actual experience of back pain.
    ::尽管这一数据似乎支持两足主义的迅速演变可能促成了我们目前低背痛的流行,但这只是一项早期研究,还需要做更多的工作来核实和扩展研究结果。 比如,在未来,可以对活人的脊椎(而不是骨骼)进行三维成像,以便把骨骼解剖的特征与背痛的实际体验联系起来。

    However, this is still an intriguing finding. Evolution is often perceived as a progression of increasing improvements, but that is not always how it works. If a trait is not disadvantageous enough to decrease reproductive success, it will often be retained. That may have been the case with spinal anatomy that leads to back pain. If you are one of the many people who will experience back pain, maybe you can take solace in the fact that it could be a relatively small price to pay for the ability to walk upright!
    ::然而,这仍是一个有趣的发现。 进化常常被视为不断进步的一步,但并非始终如此。 如果一个特征不足以降低生育成功率,它往往会被保留下来。 脊椎解剖可能导致背痛的情况可能就是这样。 如果你是会经历背痛的众多人之一,也许你可以感到安慰,因为它可能是一个相对小的代价来支付直行的能力!

    Chapter Summary
    ::章次摘要

    In this chapter, you learned about the evolution of humans. Specifically, you learned that:
    ::在本章中,你学会了人类的进化。具体地说,你学会了:

    • Primates are a diverse order of generalist mammals with adaptations for an arboreal lifestyle that first evolved from small mammalian ancestors about 55 to 65 million years ago.
      ::原始动物是五千五百万到六千五百万年前 从小型哺乳动物祖先开始 形成的 一种生物性生活方式的适应性
      • Primates have traditionally been classified into two major groups on the basis of morphology: prosimians (lemurs, lorises, and tarsiers) and anthropoids (monkeys, apes, and humans). Modern prosimians are smaller and more like early primates than the anthropoids are.
        ::根据形态学,原始人传统上被分为两大类:先质人(列穆尔人、露天人和焦油人)和人类类(猴子、猩猩和人类),现代人比人类类更小,更像早期的灵长类人。
      • Phylogenetic classification based on molecular similarities places tarsiers in a separate group from the prosimians and shows that New World monkeys diverged from Old World anthropoids before the latter diverged into Old World monkeys and apes. 
        ::以分子相似性为依据的基因分类法将焦油类与原生动物分开,表明新世界猴子与老世界类人猿不同,而老世界类人猿则与老世界类人猿和猴子不同。

      ::根据形态学,原始人传统上被分为两大类:假肢类人(麻疯、山丘和焦油类)和人类类人(猴子、猩猩和人类),现代假肢类人比人类类人小,更像早期的灵长类人。基于分子相似性的基因分类法将先天猴与古老的世界类人分开,表明新世界猴子先于古世界类人,先天猴和猿。
    • The main evolutionary trend in primates has been the elaboration of the brain, especially the neocortex. The advanced cognitive abilities of primates are reflected in their ability to use and make tools. Another evolutionary trend in primates has been an increasing dependence on complex social behavior.
      ::灵长类人的主要进化趋势是大脑的发育,特别是新皮层。灵长类人的先进认知能力反映在其使用和制造工具的能力上。灵长类人的另一个进化趋势是日益依赖复杂的社会行为。
    • Within the primate order, humans are placed in the  Hominidae  family, which are commonly called great apes. The term  hominid  is used to refer to any member of the  Hominidae  family.
      ::在灵长类中,人类被安置在Hominidae家族中,该家族通常被称为大猩猩,“hominid”一词用来指Hominidae家族的任何成员。
      • Living hominids are large primates that lack a tail. In addition to humans, they include gorillas, chimpanzees, and orangutans. All hominid species exhibit some degree of sexual dimorphism. Most species are omnivorous. Hominids have a relatively long period of maturation, during which they can learn from adults.
        ::活的人类是没有尾巴的大型灵长类动物。 除了人类之外,它们还包括大猩猩、黑猩猩和猩猩。所有有色人种都表现出某种程度的性畸形。大多数物种都是无脊椎动物。人类有相当长的成熟期,可以向成年人学习。
      • Except for the human species, all living species of hominids are found in Africa or Asia, and all of them are at risk of extinction. Human activities are the main cause of the demise of the other great apes. These damaging activities include habitat destruction, commercial hunting, and the transmission of infectious diseases from humans to nonhuman primates.
        ::人类活动是其他巨猿死亡的主要原因,包括生境破坏、商业狩猎、人类传染性疾病传染给非人类灵长类动物。

      ::除了人类外,还有大猩猩、黑猩猩和猩猩。所有有色人种都表现出某种程度的性畸形。大多数物种都是无孔不入的。有色人种有相当长的成熟期,可以向成年人学习。除了人类之外,所有有色人种都在非洲或亚洲都有灭绝的危险。人类活动是其他巨猿消亡的主要原因。这些破坏性活动包括生境破坏、商业狩猎、传染性疾病从人类传染到非人类灵长类动物。
    • An extinct ape in the genus  Dryopithecus —  which lived about 20 million years ago — was probably the ancestor of today's  Hominoidea  (great and lesser apes). The divergence of the great and lesser apes may have occurred about 15 million years ago.
      ::大约在2 000万年前就生活在Dryopithecus的基因中灭绝的猿类可能是今天的Hominoidea(大猩猩和小猩猩)的祖先,大猩猩和小猩猩的分歧可能发生在大约1 500万年前。
    • Based on molecular data, the orangutan lineage separated from the ancestral hominid line about 12 to 13 million years ago; the gorilla lineage split off from the chimpanzee/human line about eight million years ago; and the chimpanzee and human lineages diverged about six million years ago.
      ::根据分子数据,猩猩与大约1 200万至1 300万年前的祖先小猩猩线分离;大猩猩线与大约800万年前的黑猩猩/人类线分离;黑猩猩和人类系在大约600万年前分裂。
    • Hominin is a term that refers to modern humans and their immediate ancestors. Hominins include modern  Homo sapiens,  extinct species of the genus  Homo, and species in the extinct genera Australopithecus and Paranthropus.  The main defining trait of all hominins is bipedalism.
      ::霍米宁一词是指现代人类及其直系祖先。 霍米宁一词包括现代智人、已灭绝的同族物种以及已灭绝的奥斯特罗洛皮特克斯和帕罗努斯基因中的物种。 所有荷米尼人的主要特征是双足主义。
      • The genus  Ardipithecus , which lived in East Africa from about 5.8 to 4.4 million years ago, is the most likely ancestor of the hominins.
        ::阿迪皮特库斯人 大约在580万到440万年前 生活在东非 最有可能是人类的祖先
      • The earliest known hominins belonged to the genus  Australopithecus. Commonly called australopithecines, they evolved in East Africa by 4.2 million years ago and were also present in South Africa by three million years ago. By then, they were almost as fully bipedal as modern humans, but they continued to have ape-like traits above the neck.
        ::最早已知的荷明属奥斯特洛皮提喀斯人。 古代的奥斯特洛皮提喀斯人(Australopithecus ) 。 古代的奥斯特洛皮提喀斯人(Australopithecus ) 。 古代的奥斯特罗皮西斯人(Australopiticutus ) 。 古代的奥斯特洛皮提喀斯人(Australopicuticus ) , 古代的奥斯特罗皮西斯人(Austropiethecus ) , 东非洲人(East Africa) , 于420万年前演变了420万年,在南非也存在了三百万年前。 当时,他们几乎和现代人类一样完全两极,但脖子上仍有类似猿的特征。
        • Species in the genus  Australopitihecus  included:  A. anamensis  (East Africa, 4.2-3.9 million years ago);  A. afarensis  (East Africa, 3.7-3.0 million years ago); and  A. africanus  (East Africa, 3.3-2.5 million years ago, and South Africa, three-2.5 million years ago).
          ::A. A. Afarensis(东非,420万至390万年前);A. Afarensis(东非,370万至300万年前);A. Africanus(东非,330万至250万年前;南非,300万至250万年前)。
        • When the australopithecines were evolving, the climate in Africa was becoming drier and forests were being replaced by savannas. These environmental changes may have made bipedalism more advantageous.
          ::这些环境变化可能使双双脚主义变得更为有利。 亚马逊和亚马逊的热带热带热带热带热带热带热带热带热带热带热带热带雨林正在形成,非洲气候正在变得干燥,森林正在被热带热带草原所取代。 这些环境变化可能使得双脚主义变得更为有利。

        ::A. A. Afarensis (东非,420万至390万年前); A. Afarensis (东非,370万至300万年前); A. Africanus(东非,330万至250万年前;南非,3至250万年前)等物种。 当A. anamensics(东非,420万至390万年前); A. Afarensis(东非,37万至300万年前); A. Africannus(东非,330万至250万年前;南非,3至250万年前)。 当Australoptisitihecus(Africa,3-250万年前 )发生演变时,非洲的气候变得干燥,森林被稀树草原所取代。 这些环境变化可能使双足主义变得更有利。
      • About 2.5 million years ago, australopithecines disappear from the fossil record, but at least one species of  Australopithecus  (probably  A. africanus ) evolved into the earliest species of  Homo  ( H. habilis ) in East Africa. Around the same time, some other species of Australopithecus evolved into the genus Paranthropus, which went extinct by 1.4 million years ago without leaving any descendants.
        ::大约250万年前,古老的亚松森从化石记录中消失,但至少一种亚松森(大概是A. Africanus)物种(A. Africanus)在东非演变成最早的同性(H. H. Habilis)物种。 大约与此同时,其他一些亚松森物种也演变成Parhountous人,该物种在140万年前灭绝,没有留下任何后代。

      ::原生于东非,大约在580万年前到440万年前就生活在东非,原生于东非,原生于580万到440万年前,最有可能是原生的祖先。最早已知的人类原生于奥斯特洛皮提古斯。古老的奥斯特罗普提海斯。古老的奥斯特洛皮海斯。古老的人类在东非生长了420万年前,在东非洲生长了420万种,在300万年前也在南非生长了。当时,它们几乎和现代人类一样完全两极分立,但是它们继续有类似物种的特征。亚斯特洛皮提海克斯的物种包括:阿坦西(东非,420万到390万年前);阿法尔西(东非,370万到300万年前);以及Africannus(东非,330万到250万年前,南非,300万年前)。当古老的人类生长过程发生时,非洲气候正在变得比亚的变异种。这些环境变化可能使非洲最古老的亚种变成最古老的史,在250万年前成为了亚的奥本生物。大约250万年前成为了亚的史。
    • The earliest species in the genus  Homo  evolved at the start of a long period of climatic instability. It is likely that this led to strong selective pressure for larger-brained hominins that could adapt behaviorally, rather than physically. The human brain increased in size throughout the evolution of the genus Homo —  slowly at first, and then very rapidly.
      ::人类同性人最早的物种是在长期气候不稳定的开始阶段进化的,这很可能导致对更大的人脑产生强烈的选择性压力,这种压力可以从行为上而不是身体上适应。 在人类同性人的进化过程中,人类的大脑体积不断增大,最初是缓慢的,随后是非常迅速的。
    • The first known species of  Homo  appeared in East Africa about 2.5 million years ago. It was named  Homo habilis  ("handy human") because the fossils were found with stone tools.  Homo habilis  was similar to earlier australopithecines, but had a somewhat more modern head and bigger brain.  Homo habilis  went extinct 1.4 million years ago.
      ::第一种已知的同性恋物种出现在东非大约250万年前。 它被命名为High habilis (Handy human ) , 因为化石是用石器发现的。 人造人造人与早期的Australotithecines相似,但有更现代的脑袋和更大的大脑。 人造人造人在140万年前灭绝了。
    • The species named  Homo erectus  first shows up in the fossil record in East Africa about 1.9 million years ago, having evolved from  Homo habilis  or australopithecines.  Homo erectus  had a bigger brain than  Homo habilis  and made more advanced stone tools.  Homo erectus  was also the first human to leave Africa (1.8 million years ago) and control fire (1.5 million years ago).  Homo erectus  eventually spread throughout Eurasia before evolving into  Homo heidelbergensis,  starting around 800 thousand  years ago.
      ::被称为智人勃起的物种最早出现在大约190万年前的东非化石记录中,它从High habilis 或 autroloptithecines 演变而来。 智人勃起的大脑比同人勃起的大脑大得多,并且制造了更先进的石器。 智人勃起也是第一个离开非洲(180万年前)和控制火灾(150万年前 ) 的人类。 智人勃起最终在欧亚各地蔓延,然后从大约80万年前开始演变成同性heidelbergenss。
    • Homo heidelbergensis had a mix of traits of  Homo erectus  and early  Homo sapiens.  Body and brain sizes of  Homo heidelbergensis  were only a little smaller than those of early  Homo sapiens . Homo heidelbergensis  also made more sophisticated stone tools and spread out more widely through the Old World. This species is thought to have evolved into Neanderthals in Europe by 500 thousand years ago and early  Homo sapiens  by 200 thousand years ago.
      ::智人与智人的体型和脑型小于早期智人的体型和脑型。 智人与智人还制造了更先进的石质工具,并在老世界中更为广泛。 人们认为,这种物种在50万年前就已经演变为欧洲的尼安德特人,在20万年前就已经演变为早期智人。
    • Beginning about half a million years ago, several species (or subspecies) of Homo  coexisted that are grouped into a broad category called archaic humans. They include  Homo neanderthalensis, Homo floresiensis,  and  Homo denisova .
      ::从大约50万年前开始,几个同族物种(或亚种)共存,它们被归为称为古老人类的大类。 它们包括同性尼安德特人、同性佛莱西人和同性德尼索瓦人。
      • Archaic humans differed from modern humans mainly in features of the head. Unlike modern humans, they had a backward-sloping forehead, big brow ridges, and a low, elongated skull. However, their brain size was close to that of modern humans.
        ::古老的人类与现代人不同,主要表现在大脑的特征上。 与现代人不同,他们的前额落后,眉脊大,头骨低。 然而,他们的大脑大小接近现代人的大脑大小。
      • Neanderthals  (Homo neanderthalensis) had a stocky body, typical archaic features of the head, and a large brain. Neanderthals were relatively advanced technologically and culturally and lived in Europe and Asia from about half a million years ago to about 30 thousand years ago. DNA evidence shows that they most likely interbred with modern Homo sapiens  (as well as other archaic humans) before going extinct or being absorbed into  Homo sapiens  populations.
        ::尼安德特人(Homo neanderthalerens)拥有一个细小的身体、典型的头部古老特征和一个大大脑。 尼安德特人在技术和文化上相对发达,生活在欧洲和亚洲,从50万年前到大约30万年前。 DNA证据表明,他们最有可能在灭绝或被吸收到智人人口之前与现代智人(以及其他古老人类)交织在一起。
      • An extinct species of archaic humans called   Homo floresiensis  lived in Indonesia between 100 thousand and 60 thousand years ago. Evidence shows that they used stone tools and fire for cooking.  Homo floresiensis  individuals had very small brain and body sizes. Some paleontologists think they were not a separate species, but rather an early  Homo sapiens  who were unusually small because of a congenital disorder. If they are a separate species, they could have evolved their small size through the process of insular dwarfism.
        ::10万到6万年前,印度尼西亚就已绝种的古老人类物种叫“佛罗里西人同性恋”。证据表明他们用石器和火做饭。 佛莱西人同性恋的大脑和身体大小非常小。 一些古生物学家认为他们不是一个单独的物种,而是一个先天性紊乱造成的特别小的早期智人。 如果他们是一个单独的物种,他们本可以通过孤立的矮人过程发展出很小的体型。
      • Archaic humans called  Denisovans have been classified tentatively as another extinct species in the genus  Homo,  named  Homo denisova . Found in Siberia in 2010, their remains have yielded DNA that has been compared with Neanderthal and modern human DNA. The DNA comparisons show that the Denisovans shared a more recent common ancestor with Neanderthals than with modern humans. They also show a complex pattern of interbreeding among the three groups after they diverged. 
        ::2010年在西伯利亚发现,他们的遗骸产生了DNA,与尼安德特人和现代人类DNA进行了比较。DNA比较表明,杰尼索人与尼安德特人有着比现代人更近的共性祖先。他们也显示了三个群体在分裂后相互交织的复杂模式。

      ::考古人类不同于现代人类,主要以头部特征为主。与现代人类不同,他们与现代人类不同,他们的前额落后,大眉脊大,头骨低,骨骼长。然而,他们的大脑大小接近现代人类的大脑。尼安德特人(Homo neanderthatalensis)有一个小的体型,头部典型的古老特征,以及一个大大脑。尼安德特人具有相对先进的技术和文化特征,生活在欧洲和亚洲,从大约50万年前到大约30万年前。DNA证据表明,他们最有可能与现代智人(以及其它古老人类)相交织在一起,然后才灭绝或吸收到现代人。一个叫同性恋的物种灭绝物种物种在10万至6万年前生活在印度尼西亚。有证据表明,他们使用石器和火做饭,而现代人的大脑和体积则非常小。一些古代生物学家认为,他们不是内分层的内脏,而是最近一个古代的内脏,因为一个古代的内脏的代的代代代的代代人。一个古代的代的代代代代人类的代的代的代的代的代的代的代的代的代的代的代代代代的代的代的代的代。
    • Anatomically, modern humans are humans that are virtually indistinguishable from humans today. They are placed in the species  Homo sapiens , although the earliest anatomically modern humans may not have been behaviorally modern, as well.
      ::从解剖学上讲,现代人类是人类,与今天的人类几乎无法区分。 他们被安置在智人种中,尽管最早的解剖学现代人类可能也不是行为现代化的。
    • Fossil and archaeological evidence suggest that anatomically modern humans first evolved about 200 thousand years ago in East Africa, migrated throughout much of the Old World between  100 thousand and 25 thousand years ago, exhibited modern behaviors by 50 thousand years ago, and were the only human species remaining by 28 thousand years ago.
      ::物理学和考古证据表明,现代解剖学人类在大约20万年前在东非首次进化,在10万至25万年前迁移到整个老世界的许多地方,在5万年前表现出现代行为,是28万年前只剩下的人类。
    • Relative to archaic humans (such as Neanderthals), anatomically modern humans are more lightly built. Their skulls are also more rounded, have relatively slight brow ridges, a vertical forehead, a prominent chin, and relatively small teeth, jaws, and face.
      ::相对古老的人类(如尼安德特人)而言,现代的解剖人造得比较轻。 他们的头骨也比较圆,有相对轻微的眉脊、垂直前额、突出的下巴以及相对较小的牙齿、下巴和面部。
    • The first fossils of early modern humans were discovered in the 1860s in France and called  Cro Magnon. These fossils have been dated to about 27 thousand to 23 thousand years ago. These and all other modern humans that lived prior to about ten thousand  years ago are now called early modern humans.
      ::早期现代人类的第一批化石是在法国1860年代发现的,叫做克罗·马格农。 这些化石的日期在27万到23万年前。 这些以及大约在1万年前生活的所有其他现代人类现在都被称为早期现代人类。
      • The fossils of the earliest modern humans date back to 195 thousand years ago at the Omo site in Ethiopia. Very early modern human fossils may have exhibited greater physical diversity than characterizes our species today.
        ::最早的现代人类的化石可以追溯到195,000年前的埃塞俄比亚奥莫(Omo ) 。 早期的现代人类化石可能已经表现出比当今物种更丰富的物理多样性。
      • Other fossils of early modern humans provide evidence of their arrival in different parts of the world. For example, fossil evidence documents that early modern humans arrived in South Africa by 115 thousand years ago, but not in South America until about 15 thousand years ago.
        ::早期现代人类的其他化石也证明了这些化石的到来。 比如,化石证据证明早期现代人类在15万年前就抵达南非了15万年前,但直到大约15万年前才抵达南美洲。

      ::最早的现代人类的化石可以追溯到195,000年前在埃塞俄比亚奥莫遗址的195,000年前。 早期的现代人类化石可能比当今物种的特征表现出更大的物理多样性。 其他早期现代人类的化石提供了它们到达世界不同地区的证据。 比如,化石证据文件证明早期的现代人类在115,000年前来到南非,但直到大约15,000年前才来到南美洲。
    • At least three different models have been proposed to explain how modern humans evolved, interacted with archaic human species, and ultimately peopled the Old World. They are called the replacement model, regional continuity model, and assimilation model. The assimilation model is best supported by currently available data.
      ::至少提出了三种不同的模型来解释现代人类是如何进化的,如何与古老的人类物种互动,最终是人造的老世界。 它们被称为替代模型、地区连续性模型和同化模型。 同化模型得到现有数据的最佳支持。
    • Hominins evolved during one of the most climatically erratic periods in Earth's history. Climatic shifts led to shifts in vegetation and other environmental factors. For example, cooling and drying led to a shift from forests to savannas in East Africa during the evolution of early hominins.
      ::Hominins是在地球历史上气候最不稳定的时期之一演变而来的,气候变化导致植被和其他环境因素的转变,例如,在早期的Homminins演变期间,冷却和干燥导致东非从森林向热带草原的转变。
    • Three common ways that animals may respond to climate change are: moving to track their preferred climate, adapting specializations to the new climate through biological evolution, or going extinct.
      ::动物可能应对气候变化的三种常见方式是:努力跟踪其首选气候,通过生物进化使专业化适应新气候,或灭绝。
    • According to the long-held savanna hypothesis, early hominins evolved specializations to a savanna habitat as a response to climate change. This is supported by logical arguments for the advantages of early hominin traits, such as bipedalism in a savanna habitat.
      ::根据长期持有的热带草原假说,早期的Hominins(Hominins)发展成热带草原栖息地的专业化,以应对气候变化。 早期的Hominin特征(如热带草原栖息地中的双足主义)的优点的逻辑论据支持了这一点。
    • An alternative hypothesis, called the variability-selection hypothesis, proposes that hominins evolved the ability to be more adaptable in response to climate change. This hypothesis is consistent with fossil evidence of hominins living in diverse habitats.
      ::另一种假设被称作变异选择假设,它提出,恒星进化成更适应气候变化的能力。 这一假设与生活在不同生境的恒星的化石证据是一致的。
    • Encephalization, or the evolutionary enlargement of the brain relative to body size, occurred throughout hominin evolution, and it occurred most rapidly when climate was most variable. A bigger brain would have increased our level of intelligence and our ability to use behavioral adaptations to deal with climate change.
      ::整个荷米宁进化过程中,大脑的自发化,即相对于身体体积的进化扩张,都发生在荷米宁进化过程中,当气候变化最大时,这种进化最为迅速。 更大的大脑本可以提高我们的智力水平和运用行为适应来应对气候变化的能力。
      • Encephalization can be compared across species that differ in body size by comparing the encephalization quotients. The encephalization quotient corrects for differences in body size.
        ::通过比较脑电荷商数,可以比较身体大小不同的物种,从而比较体积不同的物种。脑电荷商数纠正身体大小的差异。

      ::通过比较脑电荷商数,可以比较身体大小不同的物种,从而比较体积不同的物种。脑电荷商数纠正身体大小的差异。
    • Culture is the entire way of life of a group of people. It includes all the learned skills and knowledge that a group of people share. Culture increasingly became the main way that human ancestors adapted to the environment. It allowed them to move out of the tropics and live in colder climates without developing biological adaptations to the cold.
      ::文化是一群人的整个生活方式,包括一群人分享的所有学习技能和知识,文化日益成为人类祖先适应环境的主要途径,使他们得以离开热带,生活在更寒冷的气候中,而不发展适应寒冷的生物适应。
    • The ability of people to share their culture depends on language, which is the communication of thoughts and feelings through a system of arbitrary symbols called words. Human language differs significantly from nonhuman animal communication. The earliest humans to use language may have been the Neanderthals. Their culture, DNA, and physiology all provide support for the idea that they could produce and comprehend speech.
      ::人们分享其文化的能力取决于语言,这就是通过一个被称为文字的任意符号系统交流思想和感情。 人类语言与非人类动物交流有很大不同。 最早使用语言的人可能是尼安德特人。 他们的文化、DNA和生理学都为他们能够产生和理解语言的理念提供了支持。
    • Subsistence strategy refers to the general way in which a group of people obtain food and the types of food they rely on most. At least since  Homo erectus,  humans were hunter-gatherers. They hunted a variety of wild animals and gathered a diversity of wild plant foods. Only after agriculture was invented around ten thousand years ago did some human populations adopt a different subsistence strategy. Some people remain hunter-gatherers even to this day.
      ::维持生计战略指的是一群人获得食物和他们最依赖的食品的一般方式。至少自同性恋勃起以来,人类就是狩猎采集者,他们猎杀各种野生动物,收集各种各样的野生植物食物。直到大约一万年前农业发明之后,一些人才采取了不同的维持生计战略。有些人甚至至今仍是狩猎采集者。
    • Making and using tools was an important cultural adaptation during human evolution. The Paleolithic stage of technological development was the period during which human species made and used stone tools. It started about 2.5 million years ago with the simple Oldowan tools of  Homo habilis.  It continued with increasingly sophisticated tools made by  Homo erectus , archaic humans, and finally early modern humans.
      ::在人类进化过程中,制造和使用工具是一个重要的文化适应。 技术开发的白石化阶段是人类制造和使用石器的时期。 它始于大约250万年前的奥多万简单的同性工具。 它继续使用由智人勃起、古老人类、最后是早期现代人类制造的日益先进的工具。
    • Other cultural adaptations that helped early humans remain relatively unchanged physically while moving into new areas of the world included: the controlled use of fire, shelters, clothing, and social adaptations.
      ::帮助早期人类的其他文化适应措施在进入世界新地区时,在物质上保持相对不变,包括:有节制地使用火灾、住所、衣服和社会适应措施。

    As you have learned, variation between individuals provides the raw materials on which evolution can act. Although major adaptations (like bipedalism) can evolve at the species level, more minor individual variation ( such as the differences in the anatomy of human vertebrae) also exists. In the next chapter, you will learn more about variation between humans in a number of different characteristics, as well as  how this variation can provide advantages in different environments
    ::正如你们所了解到的,人与人之间的差异为进化提供了可以发挥作用的原材料。虽然主要的适应(如双足运动)可以在物种一级演化,但更轻微的个人差异(如人类脊椎骨解剖学的差异)也存在。在下一章中,你们将更多地了解人类之间在若干不同特性上的差异,以及这种差异如何在不同环境中提供优势。

    Chapter Summary Review
    ::" 概述 " 章次

    1. In which of the below categories are modern humans classified? Choose all that apply.
    ::1. 以下哪些类别为现代人类分类?选择适用的所有类别。

    a. primates
    ::a. 灵长类

    b. great apes
    ::b. 大猩猩

    c. lesser apes
    ::c. 较小类人猿

    d. prosimians
    ::d. 乐观人

    e. anthropoids
    ::e. 人类类

    f. hylobatidae
    ::f. 超光速(hylobatidae)e

    g. hominini
    ::g. 荷米尼尼

    h. hominoidea
    ::h. 霍米诺idea

    2. True or False:  All living species of primates have been identified.
    ::2. 真实或假:所有灵长类生物都已查明。

    3. True or False:  As humans evolved, their bodies always became increasingly larger.
    ::3. 真实或假:随着人类的进化,其身体总是变得越来越大。

    4. True or False:  Modern humans are more closely related to Ardipithecus than they are to chimpanzees.
    ::4. 真实或假:现代人与阿迪皮特库斯的关系比与黑猩猩的关系更密切。

    5. Are humans more closely related to tarsiers or lemurs? Explain your answer.
    ::5. 人类是否与鱼或狐猴有更密切的关系?解释你的答复。

    6. If a species can make tools for a certain purpose, what do you think this potentially indicates about their intelligence level compared to a species that uses found objects (such as an unmodified stick or rock) for a similar purpose? Explain your answer.
    ::6. 如果某一物种可以为某一目的制造工具,那么与为类似目的使用发现物体(如未修改的棍棒或岩石)的物种相比,与该物种相比,你认为这可能显示其智力水平如何?解释你的答复。

    7. Of the choices below, which was the first species to make stone tools? 
    ::7. 在下面的选择中,哪些是第一个制造石器的物种?

    a. Homo erectus
    ::a. 人形体

    b. Homo habilis
    ::b. 同族居民

    c. Homo heidelbergensis
    ::c. 同同性血交贝氏体

    d. Homo neanderthalensis
    ::d. 同性恋人

    8. Define the term “human.”
    ::8. 界定 " 人 " 一词的定义。

    9. True or False:  Archaic humans are any members of the Homo genus that existed prior to Homo sapiens.
    ::9. 真实或假:古老人类是智人之前存在的同性基因的任何成员。

    10. True or False:  Bonobos do not have tails.
    ::10. 真实或假:波诺波斯人没有尾巴。

    11. Put the following primates in order of when they most likely evolved, from the earliest to the most recent:
    ::11. 将以下灵长类按其最可能演变的时间顺序排列,从最早的到最新的:

    Australopithecus; Homo erectus; Ardipithecus ; Homo neanderthalensis; Homo heidelbergensis; Homo habilis
    ::Australopithecus; 立体智人; Ardipithus; 尼安德特人同族; 异族同族同族同族; 异族同族同族同族同族同族; 异族同族同族同族同族同族;

    12. What is the preferred food for most great apes (other than humans)?
    ::12. 最大型类人猿(人类以外的类人猿)的首选食物是什么?

    13. Hominids are mostly:
    ::13. 山民主要是:

    a. vegetarians
    ::a. 素食者

    b. fruitarians
    ::b. 果园人

    c. carnivores
    ::c. 食肉动物

    d. omnivores
    ::d. 整个免疫系统

    14. If two fossilized human skulls were found, and one is larger than the other, can you tell which individual was more intelligent? Explain your answer.
    ::14. 如果发现两个化石化的人类头骨,一个比另一个大,你能看出哪个人更聪明吗?解释你的答复。

    15. For each of the following, state whether the adaptation is better suited for a terrestrial lifestyle or an arboreal lifestyle:
    ::15. 对于以下每一种情况,请说明适应是否更适合地面生活方式或非生物生活方式:

    a. feet with arches
    ::a. 带有拱形的脚

    b. a divergent big toe
    ::b. 不同的大脚趾

    c. wide pelvis
    ::c. 宽骨盆

    d. curved fingers
    ::d. 弯曲手指

    16. Generally describe what the Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas are and where they are located.
    ::16. 概括地描述布罗卡和维尔尼克的面积及其所在地。

    17. Imagine you found two fossilized human skulls from different species. Skull 1 has small teeth and a prominent chin. Skull 2 has larger teeth and not much of a chin.
    ::17. 想象一下,你从不同的物种中发现了两个被化石化的人类头骨。1号骨骼牙齿小,下巴突出。2号骨骼牙齿大,下巴不多。

    a. If you knew that the  skulls were from a Neanderthal and a Homo sapiens , which would be which?
    ::a. 如果你知道头骨来自尼安德特人和智人,那会是什么?

    b. If you were not given the possible species choices, what are two other types of evidence you might be able to observe or obtain that could help you determine the identity of these skulls?
    ::b. 如果没有给您可能的物种选择,您可以观察到或获得哪些其他两种证据,可以帮助您确定这些头骨的身份?

    18. True or False:  Human language is instinctive.
    ::18. 真实或假:人的语言是本能的。

    19. True or False:  The human encephalization quotient has gotten increasingly larger over the course of evolution.
    ::19. 真实或假:在演变过程中,人类脑电算商数越来越大。

    20. True or False: Over the course of evolution, climate change has likely been a major source of natural selection pressure on humans. 
    ::20. 真实或虚假:在演化过程中,气候变化很可能是人类自然选择压力的主要来源。

    21. What is another term for Cro Magnons?
    ::21. Cro Magnons的另一个术语是什么?

    22. Name a type of evidence that archaeologists found that shows that early humans used their intelligence to stay warm in cold climates.
    ::22. 指出考古学家发现的一种证据表明,早期人类利用自己的智力在寒冷的气候中保持温暖。

    23. Human young are raised by adults in their group for a relatively long period of time compared to other mammals, and even compared to other primates. Explain how this assists in the transmission of culture.
    ::23. 与其他哺乳动物相比,人类青年群体中成年人在相对长的时间内长大,甚至与其他灵长类动物相比也是如此,请解释这如何有助于文化的传播。

    24. Ardipithecus is considered a _______-hominin, because it is transitional between chimpanzees and true hominins.
    ::24. Ardipithecus被认为是一种-荷米宁,因为它是黑猩猩和真正的荷米宁之间的过渡。

    25. The genus Paranthropus...
    ::25号,Parholicus...

    a. was an ancestor to the hominins
    ::a. 是Homminins的祖先

    b. was an evolutionary “dead end”
    ::b. 是进化的“死端”

    c. was an ancestor to Homo habilis
    ::c. 是同性同居者的祖先。

    d. split off from the human lineage to later evolve into Neanderthals
    ::d. 从人类血统中分离出来,然后演变成尼安德特人

    26. The oldest known fossils of Homo sapiens are about...
    ::26. 最古老的已知智人化石是...

    a. 20 thousand years old
    ::a. 20 000岁

    b. 50 thousand years old
    ::b. 50 000岁

    c. 200 thousand years old
    ::c. 20万岁

    d. 1.5 million years old
    ::d. 150万岁